Elements of Physical and Classical Geography

This is a digital copy of a book that was preserved for generations on library shelves before it was carefully scanned by Google as part of a project
to make the world's books discoverable online.

It has survived long enough for the copyright to expire and the book to enter the public domain. A public domain book is one that was never subject
to copyright or whose legal copyright term has expired. Whether a book is in the public domain may vary country to country. Public domain books
are our gateways to the past, representing a wealth of history, culture and knowledge that's often difficult to discover.

Marks, notations and other marginalia present in the original volume will appear in this file - a reminder of this book's long journey from the
publisher to a library and finally to you.

Usage guidelines

Google is proud to partner with libraries to digitize public domain materials and make them widely accessible. Public domain books belong to the
public and we are merely their custodians. Nevertheless, this work is expensive, so in order to keep providing this resource, we have taken steps to
prevent abuse by commercial parties, including placing technical restrictions on automated querying.

We also ask that you:

+ Make non-commercial use of the files We designed Google Book Search for use by individuals, and we request that you use these files for
personal, non-commercial purposes.

+ Refrain from automated querying Do not send automated queries of any sort to Google's system: If you are conducting research on machine
translation, optical character recognition or other areas where access to a large amount of text is helpful, please contact us. We encourage the
use of public domain materials for these purposes and may be able to help.

+ Maintain attribution The Google "watermark" you see on each file is essential for informing people about this project and helping them find
additional materials through Google Book Search. Please do not remove it.

+ Keep it legal Whatever your use, remember that you are responsible for ensuring that what you are doing is legal. Do not assume that just
because we believe a book is in the public domain for users in the United States, that the work is also in the public domain for users in other
countries. Whether a book is still in copyright varies from country to country, and we can't offer guidance on whether any specific use of
any specific book is allowed. Please do not assume that a book's appearance in Google Book Search means it can be used in any manner
anywhere in the world. Copyright infringement liability can be quite severe.

About Google Book Search

Google's mission is to organize the world's information and to make it universally accessible and useful. Google Book Search helps readers
discover the world's books while helping authors and publishers reach new audiences. You can search through the full text of this book on the web

at |http : //books . google . com/

I

N

ri.c)

ELEMENTS

PHYSICAL AND CLASSICAL

JAMES PILLANS,

PSOFESSOE OF HUMANITY IN THJt UNIYSBtlTY OF IDINBUKGH.

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD & SONS,

EDINBURGH AND LONDON.
MDCCCLIV.

PREFACE TO THE INTRODUCTION.

The principal object aimed at in this Volume is, to
commtmicate, to those who have been engaged for
some time in a course of liberal study, such infor-
mation as shall not only facilitate the acquisition
and cultivation of ancient learning, but connect the
writings of the Classics with impressions and asso-
ciations that will add to the profit and pleasure of
perusing them.

But before entering upon those physical descrip-
tions and geographical details of the ^ orbis veteri-
bus notus,' by which it is proposed to accomplish
this object, there are certain views to be presented,
and certain principles to be laid down, which, at the
time of life and stage of progress contemplated in
the composition of the book, will, it is hoped, be found
no inappropriate introduction to a minuter acquaint-
ance with the world we live in.

Tlecollecting the exhibition of a Planetarium in
tl '. Rector's Class-room of the High School and
Pr. Adam's exposition of its uses and movements,

the occasion on which my mind was first awa-

IV PREFACE TO THE INTRODUCTION.

kened to a conception, however inadequate, of the
thing signified, I thought it a duty no less than I
found it a pleasure, when I became myself the instruc-
tor of others in the same class-room, to introduce the
subject of Ancient Geography with similar explana-
tions. I am aware that much has been done, in the
course of the present century (for the occasion I allude
to goes back into the last), to simplify the apprehen-
sion of celestial phenomena. Innumerable treatises
have been published, professing to make these mat-
ters intelligible to the tenderest age and the meanest
capacity. Artificial globes and solar systems have
been multiplied to infinity, and so reduced in size
and price, and at the same time so neatly executed,
that they find their way among other toys and play-
things into the nursery.

It is no doubt easy enough, and very much the
fashion in the present day, to burden the memories oi
young people with the names of all the Planets and al
the Constellations, and with many particulars concern-
ing both. But this is a premature and unprofitable
employment of the young intellect. Taking the
average of human minds, it is not till a certain period
of mental development, — ranging fi:om fourteen to
sixteen or seventeen years of age, and coinciding
generally in this country with the last days of a boy'i
school life and the first of his college course, — thai
he begins to look abroad into nature, and to realize
in conception the ideas, of which he now finds that

PREFACE TO THE INTRODUCTION. V

he had scarcely yet learned any thing beyond the
names and visible representations. It is at this
period of life, and not till then, that

animo majora capaci

Concipit^ et quae sit remm natura requirit.^

Such enlarged views, when they first break in ■
upon the youthful mind in all their freshness and
grandeur, have an elevating and ennobling effect :
and it is well worth the attention of an intelligent
teacher, to watch the time when the impression can
be made most deeply and lastingly. Supposing
that the previous drill and discipline of school have
equipped the student with the necessary implements,
and given him the habit of using them adroitly,
this is the fit moment, in the campaigning service of
human life, for breaking ground in different directions,
that it may be seen to which of them his genius in-
clines ; so that, while he pushes his advanced posts
a certain length in them all, he may concentrate his
efforts in that line of operation where he feels they
are most likely to be crowned with success.

The process described is tentative and experi-
mental, having for its aim, not the accumulation of
fects or the mastery of minute details, but the ex-
panding of the mind to general views in more than
one branch of human knowledge ; and it is a process
not less improving than it is delightful to incipient
manhood.

* Ovid. Metam. B. xv. 1. 4.

VI PREFACE TO THE INTRODUCTION.

Influenced by these considerations, I have endea-
voured, in the following Introduction, to open up
glimpses, as it were, into one or two subjects which
are very much akin to the main purpose of the work.

The first of these apergus refers to the globe
which we inhabit, considered in its relations, both
to the other members of the system it belongs to, and
to the universe at large, of which that system itself
is but a portion. In this part of the Introduction
nothing more is aimed at than a lucid, intelligible
statement of acknowledged facts and elementary
truths : — such a statement as, to those to whom the
subject is not new, may be no unpleasing reminis-
cence, while to the uninitiated it can hardly fail, on
such a theme, to be both interesting and instructive.

To this elementary exposition I have the pleasure
of being able to append a series of Tabular Formulae,
which will furnish information and materials for
thinking to the most advanced student of Astrono-
my. For these the reader is indebted to my es-
teemed colleague Professor Piazzi Smyth. They have
the advantage of containing the latest intelligence
from the remote regions of infinite space, and an
account of celestial phenomena, and of the various
relations which the heavenly bodies stand in to one
another, so fiill and so minutely particular, that
ordinary readers, who are not aware of the resources
of science, will be apt to feel their astonishment not
unmixed with incredulity. And it cannot but give a

PEEFACE TO THE INTEODUCTION. Vll

high value to these Tables to know, that they are
not copied from former works on the subject, but
are mostly the results of original calculations insti-
tuted for this Work.

My own brief account of the heavens is followed
by an exposition of the principles on which I con-
ceive that all geographical knowledge ought to be
both acquired and communicated, and in accordance
with which the descriptive details in the body of
the work have been arranged and classified.

Attached to the Introduction will also be found a
contribution from the pen of my valued friend Mr
Charles Maclaren. It gives a popular, and every
reader will agree with me in thinking, a clear and
masterly outline of the truths recently unfolded by
the science of Greology respecting the physical struc-
ture of the globe, the revolutions it has undergone,
and the extinct races of animals that dwelt upon it
before it was rendered fit for the habitation of man.

These different aspects of creation, whether as it
exists above us, or around us, or beneath our feet,
cannot be regarded as foreign to the ends proposed
in a liberal education. They ought all, on the con-
trary, to be more or less familiar to every one who
has a wish to raise himself above the mere drudgery
of mechanical manipulation, or to escape the cramp-
ing influences of official routine.

As Mr Keith Johnston and Thb Publishbbs have dode me
the honour to announce this volume as an accompaniment to their
Classical Atlas, I think it right to state, that I can claim no share
of the research and labour required in the preparation of that
Work : and I feel myself therefore at liberty to express the high
opinion I entertain of the skill, judgment, and taste, displayed in
the construction of the Maps, in the artistic beauty of the execu-
tion, and in the copiousness and accuracy of the general Index.

J. P.

College of Edinburgh,
Norember 1853.

INTEODTJCTION.

Non aliud quis aut magnificentius quaesierit, aut didicerit utilius,
qnam de Btellamm sideramqne natorft.

Sekec. NcUwr. QucBit. vii. 1.

The Earth we inhabit is a body nearly globular,
resembling in shape an orange, or a bias-bowl. It
is one of a number of bodies, similar to it in form,
called Planets, which revolve at various distances
round the sun, all moving in the same direction,
from West to East, in paths or orbits the planes of
which differ but little from the plane of the Earth's
orbit.^

But besides this progressive movement in space^
which carries them with very diflferent degrees of
velocity round the Sun as their common centre, the

^ The word plane, and fhe fact stated aboye, may be rendered
intelligible to the young student, by placing before him a couple of
hoops, one somewhat smaller than the other, and connecting them
by a pin or strong wire, on which as on a pivot they are easily
moveable. Each hoop will represent the orbit of a planet, and
the space it encloses the jplane of that orbit. Suppose the two
hoops to be both adjusted to the horizontal level, it will be neces-
sary, in order to assist the learner in comprehending the planetary
movements, to raise or depress one of them, so as to make an angle
more or less acute where it crosses the other at the wire.

X INTRODUCTION.

planets have also a rotatory motion, each on its own
axis — ^like the double motion of the bias-bowl as it
rolls along the green.

The Sun which dispenses light and heat to all
these bodies is itself a spherical body, and has a
motion like them on its axis. That it has, more-
over, a progressive movement in infinite space, with
all the Planets in its train, towards, or round, some
point in the Universe, is nOw regarded by astrono-
mers as a demonstrated truth.

Of the Planets, which, with the central lumi-
nary, constitute what is called the solar or planetary
system, five besides the Earth were known to the
ancients, and received fi*om them the names which
they have ever since retained, — ^Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. These being the only
planets which are visible to the naked eye, we need
not be surprised that no addition was made to their
number before the invention of the telescope. By
the improvements which Sir William Herschel made
on that instrument, he was enabled in 1781 to dis-
cover, far beyond the orbit of Saturn, that body
which has long been received into the number of the
planets under the name of Uranus.

In 1846, another planet was added to the list,
under circumstances not a little remarkable. Not
only was it ascertained that the body, since called
Neptune, existed, and at nearly double the distance
of Uranus firom the Sun, but its exact place in the

THE PLANETS. XI

heavens was detennined, and many of its properties
and peculiarities described, before it had been seen
by human eye : for the discovery was made, not by
accident or improved instruments, but by one of the
rarest combinations of observation and science that
ever did honour to the human intellect. And it
adds to the interest of this discovery, that the inves-
tigations which led to it were simultaneously and
successfully prosecuted,- and quite independently of
each other, by a French savant in Paris, and an
English mathematician at Cambridge.^

We have now therefore eight Planets ; and several
of them, as will be seen in the Tabular Series, are
attended by Satellites or secondary planets, which,
while they accompany their primary in its revolu-
tions round the Sim, have also a motion peculiar to
themselves, each round its own primary.

Our Moon is a body of this description, 2160 miles
in diameter. Like all the other Planets primary and
secondary, it is opaque, but capable, like them, of
reflecting a portion of the Sun's light. The Moon
revolves round the Earth in one month at the Tnean
distance of 237,000 miles.* If the plane of the

^ Leverrier and Adams. See Appendix, Note A. at the end of
the Introduction.

^ Learners are apt to boggle at the astronomical nse of the ad-
jective mean. It is derived inmiediately from the French " moyen,'*
and remotely from the Latin medium, '' middle/' which is the real
signification of the term. If a bodj moved, round a fixed point, in a
cirole^ there would be no need, in describing its motions, to use the

XU INTRODUCTION.

Moon's orbit coincided with the plane of the Earth's^
there would be a total eclipse of the moon every
month at the full, and either a total or annular^
eclipse of the sun just before new moon. The lunar
eclipse would take place when the Earth, being in-
terposed between the Moon and the Sun, projected a
cone of darkness which the moon would reqttire two
hours to travel through. The solar eclipse would
occur when the Moon was directly between the Earth
and Sun. But such monthly eclipses do not take
place, because the orbit of the Moon is inclined to that
of the Earth at an angle of 5° 9";^ and this is enough
to raise her above or depress her below the cone of
the Earth's shadow at all times, except when she
happens to be full or new at the time of her nodes j
that is, when the orbits of the two bodies intersect
each other, and the centres of all the three bodies,
sun, moon, and earth, are in the same straight line.
That eclipses of the Sun are more rarely seen than
those of the Moon is owing to the fact, that a body
so comparatively small as the Moon, whose diameter
is only \ that of the Earth's, can never intercept

tenu m^an distance, because its distance would be always the same
— the radius, to wit, of the circle. But if it moves in an oval or
dlvpUyiA all the planets do, its distance from the fixed point is con-
stantly changing ; and the mean distance is the middle term be-
tween the greatest and the least.

^ Total, when the moon was nearest to the earth, and annular,
when she was farthest.

^ See Appendix. Note B.

MOON — PLANETOIDS. XIU

the Sun's light by her projected shadow from more
than a small portion of the Earth's surface, and that
only for a short space of time.

But besides the eight Planets named, reckoning
the Earth as one of them, there are certain other
bodies moving between the orbits of Mars and Ju-
piter, which Mfil the condition of planetary exist-
ence, by revolving round the Sun in independent
elliptical orbits of their own ; but which are at the
same time, comparatively so small, — ^th^ largest of
them being greatly inferior in bulk to oi^r Moon,^ —
that they ought not to be classed with the great
Planets of the system, the Di mqjorum gentmmj
buf'arranged under a separate head with the title of
* Planetoids.' It is a prevailing notion among astro-
nomers, that they are the fragments of a burst planet,
which, before the catastrophe, revolved in the space
between Mars and Jupiter, — ^where indeed such a
body had been long desiderated, to preserve the law
of proportionate distance of the Planets from each
other.

To the Planets, primary and secondarj^, and the
Planetoids, all revolving round the Sun as their com-
mon centre, there must be added, in order to complete
our conception of the Solar System, a very consider-
able number, not less than many hundreds, of Comets ;
concerning whose nature, uBes, and courses, we are

^ At railway speed one might make the circuit of the globe
Ceres, which is the largest of them, in a few hours.

XIV INTRODUCTION.

still very much in the dark. They move in long or
veiy eccentric ellipses. The comet which Sir Isaac
Newton observed in 1680 approached the Sun so
closely in its perihelion as to be greatly within the
orbit of Mercury, and in its remotest point or aphelion^
was calculated to be 150 times farther from the sim
than the earth is.^ A Comet appeared two years
after, which Halley identified by careful observation
and happy conjecture with the comet of 1531 and
1607 ; and accordingly he foretold its re-appearance
after a period of 76 or 77 years : — a prediction which
was verified in 1759 ; and again in 1835. This is the
only comet of which many successive returns have
been accurately observed, and the nature of whose
orbit is well understood, with the exception of three
small telescopic comets, which are called ^plane-
tary' because their orbits are included within that
of Jupiter. They are known by the names of their
discoverers, Encke's, Biela's, and Faye's.

All these bodies, then, taken together, — the Sun,
Planets, Planetoids, Moons, and Comets — constitute
the system of which our little world is a part. Their
movements in space are all produced by an impulse
originally communicated to each, which is controled
and regulated by the continual action of a centripetal
force, exerted by, and directed to, the Sun. The
original impulse, acting«aZ(me, would have carried the

^ That is, 150 times 95,000,000 of miles^— a distance which it
baffles imagination to conceive.

CENTRIFUGAL AND CENTBIPETAL FOBCES. XV

planets straiglit forward into infinite space, in the
line of their first projection; it being an axiom in
physics, that any body to which motion is commnni-
cated will continue to move on for ever, uniformly and
constantly, in the direction given, unless it be afiected
by some disturbing cause. The centripetal force,
again, supposing it acted alone on the planets at rest,
would make them fall into the body of the Sun with
a continually accelerated motion ; just as a stone let
fall descends to the earth. And the descent of the
planet, like the fall of the stone, would be merely an
instance of the great truth established by Sir Isaac
Newton, that all bodies whatever mutually attract
each other, with a force directly proportional to their
quantity of matter as measured by weight, and in-
versely to the square of the distance. Hence it fol-
lows that the sun tends or gravitates to the planets,
as well as the planets to the sun ; and both sun and
planets revolve round a conmion central point within
the system ; a point, however, which, owing to the
prodigiously greater mass of matter in the sim, is
within his body, and never distant firom his centre
so much as one-fourth of the solar diameter. " If
we tie two stones together by a string, and fling
them aloft, we see them circulate about a point
between them, which is their common centre of
gravity ; but if one of them be greatly more pon-
derous than the other, this conmion centre will be
proportionally nearer to that one, and even within

XVI INTRODUCTION.

its surface ; so that the smaller one will circulate, in
fact, about the larger, which wiU be comparatively
but little disturbed from its place." ^ As the two
causes of motion we have spoken of, the centrifugal
and centripetal force, do not act singly, nor per soU-
tum^ but conjointly and unceasingly, their combined
effect is to compel the planets to describe a curvili-
near path, concave to the Sun. This effect may be
more easily comprehended by adverting to the fami-
liar fact, that the rower of a boat, in making directly
for the nearest point on the opposite side of a rapid
stream, is compelled to land considerably below the
point he aimed at. If there were no current, the
plying of the oars would convey him to the point
right opposite ; if he ceased to ply in the current,
the boat would go down the stream ; the two forces
acting together carry him in the diagonal, and land
him at a lower point on the opposite bank.

The curve into which the planets are turned aside
from a rectilinear path by the force of solar attrac-
tion, is an ellipse, more or less eccentric, but seldom
differing much from a circle. The sxm is not in the
centre of circular orbits, but in one of \h<^foci of an
ellipse,^ and every planet has therefore an aphelion or
point in its orbit where it is farthest from, and ^^peri-
helion^ where it is nearest to the Sun. The difference
between the greatest and the smallest distance in the

^ Sir John Herschel's Astronomy, p. 193.
"^ See Appendix. Note C.

THE FIXED STARS. xvil

caaeofthe Earth is 3,290,100 miles, or y^^jth part
of its mean distance. The points in the orbit corres-
ponding to the aphelion and perihelion are termed
the apsides^ and have a slow angular motion in the
heavens, in consequence of which they mutually
change their positions, after an interval of about
10,470 years. At the present epoch, the Earth is
in her aphelion about the beginning of July, and
in her perihelion about the beginning of January.
And yet, in our northern hemisphere, it is coldest
when the Earth is nearest the Sim, and vice versd;
a result which is due to the shorter duration of the
day, and the greater obliquity of the solar rays as
they fall on the earth's surface.

The luminous points which ttmnkle in the firma-
ment (for the planets shine with a steady light)
are called Jlxed stars, because they never change
their relative positions, that is, their apparent angu-
lar distances from one another. It is thus they are
distinguished from the planets, (irXovT^TOt, wanderers j
from i:Xavao|JLat, erroj) whose motions among the hea-
venly bodies appear to the observer on this earth
to be altogether irregular and anomalous. Such
apparent irregularity is a necessary result, when two
bodies, the one observed and the other observed
from, are both in motion, with diflferent velocities
and in diflferent directions. To the ancients, such
seemingly capricious movements were perplexing
and inexplicable, unless they had followed out th^

XVlll INTRODUCTION.

idea staxted by Pythagoras, that the Sun was the
centre of the universe, — an idea which, strange to
say, seems to have found no favour among the later
philosophers of antiquity.^

Vast as the distances are found to be among the
bodies composing the solar system, they are as
nothing when compared with the distance of the
fixed stars from our earth. Of its immensity some
idea may be formed from the fact, that a star ob-
served in the zenith {{,e. directly overhead) through
a long narrow tube, will still be seen in the zenith,
if the observation be repeated six months after; and
yet the observer is then on the opposite side of the
earth's orbit, at the distance across of 190,000,000
of miles. In other words, if that diameter of the

^ It is creditable to Cicero that, though nnable to explain or ac-
count for these seeming anomalies, he neVer allows them to shake his
faith in the perfect order und regularity of the celestial movements,
or in the existence of a divine intelligence from which they pro-
ceed. So firm are his convictions, that even when recording and
describing these unaccountable phenomena, he denies the propriety
of the epithet frXuvfirat, in the words that follow : — |

'' Maxime vero admirabiles sunt motus earum qninque stellarum,
quae false vocantur errantes ; nihil enim errat quod in omni
seternitate conservat progressus et regressus, reliquosque motus
con^tantes et rates. Quod eo est admirabilius in his stellis quas
dicimus, quia tum occultantur, tum rursus aperiuntur ; turn abeunt,
tum recedunt ; tum antecedunt, tum subsequuntur : tum celeriuB
moventur, tum tardius ; tum onmino ne moventur quidem, sed ad
quoddam tempus insistunt.*' — Cic. de Naij. Deob. II., 20.

These puzzling appearances do not prevent Cicero from con-
cluding thus in the next chapter, ^ Coelestem ergo admirabilem
ordinem incredibilemque constantiam, ex qua conservatio et salus
omnium omnis oritur, qui vacare mente putat, isipse mentis expers
habendus est."— lb., 21.

THE UNIVEESE — ^THE EARTH. XIX

earth's orbit be taken as the base of a triangle whose
sides are the rectilinear distances of the star from
the earth at the opposite points of her orbit, the
sides are so immeasurably longer than the hase^ that
the latter seems to shrink into an imperceptible
point, and the two former to coincide into one straight
Hne. The angle at the apex is so small — so ex-
ceedingly acute — as not to admit of measurement, or
to affect in any perceptible degree the observed place
of the star.^

It is reasonable to believe, that bodies transmit-
ting their rays from such a distance are suns like
our own, and that they dispense light and heat to
systems inhabited like ours by sentient and intelli-
gent beings : nor is it possible for the imagination
to assign a limit in any direction to the number and
extent of such systems. It is thus the human mind
raises itself to the contemplation of a Universe, not
unworthy of having for its architect an almighty
and all-wise Creator.

The earth, thougli but an atom in this immensity
of creation, naturally claims the chief attention of
the being whose residence it is. To the Earth there-
fore we return.

It has been already said that our Globe, besides
its annual course round the Sun, revolves also on
one of its own diameters, which, on that account, is
called its aaia ; and the extremities of this axis are

^ See Appendix, Note D.

XX INTRODUCTION.

the poles of the Earth. The straight line joining
'the Poles always points the same way, which is
equivalent to saying, that the axis of the Earth is
parallel to itself in every part of its orbitual revolu-
tion. If the axis made a right angle with the plane
of the orbit, the Sun's apparent path in the heavens
would be always in the plane of the Equator, that
is, directly over a circle going round the Earth equi-
distant from each pole ; and there would be no varia-
tion of seasons, no difference in the length of the
day and night. These vicissitudes arise from the
Earth's axis being inclined to the plane of her orbit
at an angle of 66° and a half; the consequence of
which inclination is, that the Sun's apparent path
declines to the extent of 23 J degrees on each side of
the Equator, and he is directly overhead or vertical
at noon twice a year, to all the points successively
of the Earth's surface which are comprehended with-
in a belt or zone of 47 degrees in breadth.

As to the rotundity of the Earth, it has long been
demonstrated by circumnavigation; but it might
always have been inferred with certainty from va-
rious facts and appearances: such as, — 1. The pro-
jection of the Earth's shadow on the disc of the
Moon, particularly in a lunar eclipse that is not total.
The line which then separates the illumined fi-om
the darkened portion of the Moon's face, is always a
curve, though the Earth is all the while turning on
its axis, and therefore continually presenting a new

THE EARTH, AS A PLANET. XXI

portion of its surface : 2. The appearance of home-
ward and outward bound vessels at sea, in which the
highest parts are the first seen, and the last lost
sight of, on the horizon : 3. The level necessary to
be observed in making a long canal, which must be
taken in the arc, not on the tangent, of a circle : 4.
The increasing altitude of the polar star to the eye
of a person travelling north, and its nearer approach
to the horizon as one goes south. The inequalities
of mountain and valley are as nothing on the sur-
face of a globe of 25,000 miles in circumference, —
not proportionally as great as those on the rind of
an orange. The Earth, however, even with this
allowance, is not a perfect sphere. Its axis or Polar
diameter is a 299th part shorter than its Equatorial,
that is, than the diameter which, crosses the Polar
at right angles. The Earth, therefore, is a little
flattened at the poles, and bulges out in the regions
equidistant from them, where the diurnal rotation is
most rapid. The difierence in the length of the two
diameters is only 26 miles : and therefore it is, that
the Earth's shadow projected on the Moon's disc
does not sensibly difier from an arc of a circle.

If the preceding observations have conveyed a
tolerably correct idea of the general appearance of
onr globe, and of its movements as they are actually
performed in space, particularly of that movement
which keeps the earth's axis parallel to itself, — it
should not be diflSicult to comprehend the meaning

Xxii INTEODUCTION.

and use of certain circles and stgnsj which, though
they have no existence in nature, it is found conve-
nient to represent on artificial globes, both Terres-
tral and Celestial.

The Eqiuztor, or Equinoctial Line, is an imaginary
circle on the earth's surface equidistant from each
pole, and dividing the globe equally into the North-
em and Southern Hemispheres. It is continued in
the same plane to the firmament.

The Ecliptic is a circle in the heavens, which
crosses the Equinoctial obliquely at two opposite
points. It represents the apparent course of the Sun
in the heavens, or, which is the same thing, the real
path of the earth among the fixed stars as it would
be seen from the Sun. A corresponding circle is
marked also on the Terrestrial Globe, for the con-
venience of solving problems.

As the Sun is never vertical at noon to any spot
farther north or south of the Equator than 23^**,
the circles that bound this distance on the two sides
are called tropics (from xpeTco), verto^) because the
Sim seems then to tarn back from his greatest
northern declination at the tropic of Cancer, and
from his greatest southern declination at the tropic
of Capricorn. Accordingly, the period of these turm
viz. the 21st June and 21st December, are respect-
ively called the summer and winter Solstice (sol and
sisto.) The whole belt between, 47° broad, marks on
the terrestrial globe the extent of the Torrid zone:

\

EXPLANATION OF TERMS. Xxiii

and on the celestial, it includes the path of the Sun
among the twelve aigna of the Zodiac^ — a term which
denotes certain longitudinal compartments of 30**
each, through one of which the Sun appears to travel
every month. The Sim crosses the Equator about
the 21st March and 21st September, on which days
his diurnal course is represented by the Equator.
The precise times when the Sun crosses the Equator
are called the equinoxea^ because the days and nights
are then equal, consisting of 12 hours each, all over
the globe : and the points where the sun's path in-
tersects the equator are called the equinoctial points.
As the Sun can never illuminate more than one-
half of the globe at a time, it is plain that when he
is vertical at the tropic of Capricorn, he will not be
seen at the North Pole, nor at any place less than
23^° removed from it. As he advances from that
tropic, the circle within which he is invisible will
contract continually till he arrive at the Equator,
when it will disappear altogether, and be replaced,
as the Sun advances northward, by a constantly
widening circle within which he never sets, till he
arrive at the tropic of Cancer, after which the same
processes take place in the reverse order. The ex-
treme circumferences are the Arctic and Antarc-
tic Circles, and the spaces between them and the
Poles, the Frigid Zones. The intermediate spaces
between these Circles and the Tropics, comprising
43** each, are called the Temperate Zones. Thus,

XXIV INTRODUCTION.

the 47° of the Torrid, the 47** made up of the two
Frigid, and the 86° made up of the two Temperate
Zones, complete the 180° from pole to pole.

Latitude is distance north or south from a fixed
circle, reckoned in degrees, each of which measures
69 i English miles. The fixed circle is the Equator,
from which latitude is reckoned to the poles ; and it
can never, of course, exceed 90°, that being the fourth
part of 360°. These degrees are marked, in an arti-
ficial globe, on the brazen meridian ; in a map, on
the sides: and circles or lines called Parallels of
Latitude are drawn every fifth or every tenth degree,
for determining more readily the places which have
the same latitude.

Longitude is distance reckoned east and west : and
there being no fixed point to reckon it from, as in the
case of latitude, geographers have generally made the
capital of their own country the first meridian, count- ^
ing thence 180° west, and as many east. A degree
of longitude, however, is not, like a degree of lati-
tude, of uniform length. It is greatest at the Equa-
tor, and diminishes gradually as the meridicmal lines
converge to the poles, where they all meet. The
degrees of longitude are marked, in artificial globes,
on the Equator : in maps, along the top and bottom.

We now proceed to the subject of geography pro-
perly so called, and to a statement of the principles
ana\ methods according to which it ought to be stu-
died tod taught.

\

GEOGRAPHY. XXV

Geography, (from fsa, terraj and 'i^^j scriho v.
pingo,) is, strictly speaking, that science wliich makes
us acquainted with the surface of this terraqueoua
globe and its various allotments, subdivisions, and
distinctions, whether they be the work of nature, or
the appointment of man. The natural appearances
of the surface are the subject of Physical Geography,
which considers the earth as composed of land and
water ^ and points out the distribution of both, — of
the land into Continents, Peninsulas, and Islands,
with their Mountains, Plains, and Valleys, their
Capes, Promontories, and Isthmuses ; of the water
into Oceans, Seas, Gulfs, Bays, Creeks, Inlets, Straits,
Firtha or Estuaries, Lakes, and Eivers. To these
may be added Cities, Fortresses, Sea-ports, Towns,
and Villages, which, though works of man, have
nevertheless a real existence and permanent locality.
The other appointments of man are fluctuating and
ideal, though not the less necessary to be learned, on
account of thdr connection with the history and for-
tunes of our race. They belong to Civil Geography,
wliich describes the parceling out of the land into
Quarters, Empires, Kingdoms, Monarchies, States,
Republics, Duchies, Principalities, with the minor ^
subdivisions into Circles, Provinces, Departments,
Shires or Counties, Eidings, Hundreds, and Pa-
rishes.

The proportion of land to water is not much more
than a third of the whole surface of the globe, being

XXVI INTEODUCTION.

in round numbers, 50,000,000 square miles, while
the water covers 145,000,000. Of these fifty mil-
lions of square miles but a smaU portion was known
to the ancients : and with that portion only we have
to do in an outline of geography intended for the
illustration of the ancient writers, and for the use of
the classical student.

Almost every thing important in this point of view-
is comprehended within the countries, states, and
empires which border on the Mediterranean, or touch,
in some point, either that body of water, or the gulfs
and minor seas connected with it.^

Proposing to ourselves, then, a tour of the Medi-
terranean and its cognate waters, let us start from
Calpe (the Eock of Gibraltar) which the' ancients
called (me of the Pillars of Hercules, and travel round
all the indentations of the coast, with our right shoul-
der to the sea, till we arrive at Abyla, the other pillar,
on the AMcan side of \h&jretum Eerculeum, If we
describe, in this imaginary progress, every country-
on the shore of which we set foot, through all its
extent, dependencies, and peculiarities during the
classical ages, — we shall have performed much of
what is required for throwing light on the Classics^

^ " The great object of travelling/' says Dr Samuel Johnson, ^^ is
to see the shores of the Mediterranean. On those shores were the
four great empires of the world : — the Assyrian, the Persian, the
Grecian, and the Roman. All our religion, almost all our laws,
almost all our arts, almost all that sets us above savages, has come
to us from the shores of the Mediterranean.'*

CIECUIT OF THE MEDITEBRANEAN. XXVU

In this circuit, we shall find ourselves successively,
— ^in the Spanish Peninsula ; — in Gaul, having the
Alps, and the river Ehine firom source to mouth,
for its eastern boundary; — ^in Germany, as form-
ing part of the great Basin of the Ehine ; — in Italy,
bounded by the Alps and the sea ; — in Illyricum,
Dalmatia, and Epirus; — ^in Peloponnesus, Greece
Proper, Thessaly, Macedonia, Thrace, and Moesia :
then, ascending the Danube to its source, we shall
find ourselves, as we follow the current downward,
successively in Bhaetia, Vindelicia, Noricum, Pan-
nonia, and Dacia. Once more skirting the Euxine,
we shall pass the Crimea, Sarmatia, Colehis, Arme-
nia, Asia (Minor); then traverse Syria, Palestine,
Arabia, and Egypt ; and proceed along the northern
coast of Africa, through the territory of Cyrene,
Carthage, Numidia, and Mauritania, till we are once
more on the Meridian from which we started.

Thus, by making the Tour of the Mediterranean
and its tributary seas, and describing all the coun-
tries we touch upon, not forgetting the Islands con-
nected with each, we shall have almost exhausted
the subject of Classical Geography, as far at least
as it ought to be carried in schools or colleges.
I say almost; for, after having completed the
circuit of what the Romans called mare nostrumj
with all its dependencies, it may be well to make
two digressions; one to the Asiatic conquests of
Alexander the Great ; and the other to the ancient

XXVIU INTRODUCTION.

geography of our own island. Beyond these, little
is required for the classical student to know.

In arranging the particular description and details
of the several countries that come within the scope
of these Elements, I shall proceed in conformity
with the following views and principles.

1. In studying tl^e geography of any country, the
first thing to be done, after settling its boundaries^
its length and breadth, and its latitude and longi-
tude, is to acquire a knowledge, not of its civil divi-
sions, which are conventional and fluctuating, but of
its physical characters. Of these characters, which
are permanent and impressed on the globe by the
hand of nature, the most striking are the following :
— 1. The line of coast where the country is maritime,
— 2. The mountains, either single, in groups, or in
long ranges, — 3. The rivers, with their complement
of tributary streams, — and 4. the slopes and lower
grounds, level or undulating, which are bounded on
either side by the mountain ranges, and are at once
watered and drained by the main river and its tri-
butaries. These tracts of country, which are valleys
upon a large scale, we call Basins, distinguishing
them individually by the name of the main river
that belongs to them, as when we speak of the Basin
of the Po, of the Dufero, of the Rhine.^

To be made acquainted with the physical features
^ See Appendix. Note E.

FIRST PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. XXIX

above enumerated, their names, numbers, and rela-
tive positions, is as necessary to the young geogra-
pher, as a knowledge of the bones and great blood-
Ycssels of the human frame is to the young anato-
mist. It is, in both cases, the foundation on which
subsequent acquirements ought to be reared.

It is not meant to be affirmed, that the enumera-
tion just given of the natural subdivisions of the
Earth's surface furnishes a principle of universal ap-
pKcation, or that it will form the basis of a geogra-
phical arrangement. for every part of the world.
The vast sandy desert that occupies so much of the
broadest part of Africa, the Karroos that stretch
northward almost interminably from the Cape of
Good Hope, the Llanos and Pampas of South, and
the Prairies and Savannahs of North America, and
the great belt of tableland which forms the central
region of Asia, — all these are large constituent por-
tions of the surface of the globe, in which it would be
useless to attempt such distribution of the land into
IcmnSj or river-systems. But to the countries in the
circuit of the Mediterranean the principle will be
found applicable in practice, and to an extent that
will greatly simplify and facilitate the acquisition of
geographical knowledge.

2. When the learner has been thus made ac-
quainted with the physical aspect of the countiy,
with the principal chains of mountains, — ^with the
names and courses of the main rivers and of the

XXX INTRODUCTION.

principal tributaries which fall into them on Iboth
sides, — and with the tracts of country which they
permeate in all directions, — the next step is to follow
each of the main rivers from the source downwards,
observing, as we go along, what cities or towns
of importance are either divided by it, or close
upon it, or at a moderate distance from either bank.
If the same process be adopted with the principal
tributary streams, and if, in addition, the Towns
and Ports on the sea-coast, where the country is
maritime, be noted and named in their order, it will
be found that very few places of consequence have
been omitted. Their positions will be thus advan-
tageously fixed in the memory, when they are asso-
ciated with the rivers, and seas, and basins, to which
they belong. This knowledge will be still better
secured, and the picture of the country in the learner's
mind be made more vivid, if the first lines of geo-
graphy be taught, not by presenting to the eye the
confounding intricacy of an engraved and lettered
map, but by means of a board, on which nothing
but the great natural .features and palpable realities
shall be delineated ; and where no river, or tributary-
stream, or town shall be inserted, except those which
are to form the ground-work of the instruction. The
representation of the country on the board being
thus freed from all distracting details and the names
omitted, the eye and the mind of the learner are no
longer perplexed by a multiplicity of objects. Let

FIRST PRINCIPLES IN GEOGRAPHY. xxxi

a board of a jet-black unreflecting surface be em- '
ployed, and our skeleton-map drawn upon it, with
chalks of a colour appropriate to the object deli-
neated, — green for the hills, light blue for the rivers,
pink or any distinct colour for the towns, — and a
red cross for the scenes of battles and sieges, — and it
will be found greatly to delight the imagination and
assist the memory. With a board thus prepared,
presenting nothing to the eye that does not repre-
sent realities in nature, — and even among them a
selection only of those most worthy to be known, —
let us invite the student to accompany us in an
imaginary voyage down the blue river which he sees
winding its way between the ranges of green hills
on either side and, as it advances from fountain head
to embouchure, swelling in breadth and depth by
the tribute of numerous streams from the adjoining
heights. In this progress, we fall in with the towns
whose site has been determined by the convenience
of the river and the alluvial soil of its vicinity, and
inform ourselves of their names and what is remark-
able about them; or, coming upon the points of
junction of tributary streams, we ascend them in
search of memorable localities to which they may
guide us. If we go through the same process in regard
to all the great rivers and their feeders,* we shall
find ourselves possessed in an easy and agreeable
way of a better general idea and more interesting
knowledge of the country whose geography we are

XXXll INTRODUCTION.

studying, than if we had painfully committed to
memory whole columns of cities and towns and coun-
ties, and other conventionalities. The information
conveyed in the manner now described, being com-
municated to the ear of the pupil at the same moment
that his eye is fixed on the subject of it, will have a
double chance of being deeply impressed and long
remembered.^

3. It is not till we have completed this outline of
what has a substantive existence, that the attention
of the pupil ought to be called to the partition of the
territory into provinces, circles, principalities, and
shires, which are purely arbitrary, and have no
natural character, no physical reality or assured per-
manence. With the contents and limits of these
civil divisions, which time and conquest are con-
stantly altering, it is no doubt important to be well
acquainted, on account of their connection both with
the history of past times and the concerns of the
present ; but even these conventional divisions are
most readily acquired aud most firmly retained,
when the physical geography of the country has
been previously mastered.

4. In teaching geography as a branch of general
knowledge, it is a mistake to aim at great minute-
ness of detail. The subject ought not to be ex-
hausted. It can only be made attractive and pro-
fitable to young minds, by limiting the enumeration

^ See Appendix. Note F.

INTRODUCTION. XXXIU

to those particulars, concerning which information
of an interesting kind can be imparted. The com-
piler of a school-book should neither be ambitious
of shewing the extent of his own knowledge, nor
afraid of incurring the imputation of ignorance. His
desire should be, to select judiciously what is fit to
be taught, taking Pliny's rule for his guide, — non
omnia dicam^ aed maarime insignia. If the pupil
shall never go beyond this elementary stage, he
will at least not readily forget what he has so ac-
quired ; and, should he be tempted to proceed far-
ther, he win start with eminent advantage from the
simple and well-defined outline of his previous ac-
quisitions.

5. As, on the one hand, the memory should not
be overloaded with a multitude of mere names, so
on the other, as many interesting associations as
possible should be connected with the details which
are given. In the case of towns, for example, the
striking peculiarities, both in their natural, civil,
political, and commercial history, — all that can serve
to paint them to the imagination, and distinguish
them from one another by something more than the
name, — should find a place, either in the text-book
itself, or in the prelections and demonstrations of the
teacher.

6. With the same view of multiplying the asso-
ciations which give interest and permanence to the
information conveyed, it will be useful, even in a

c

XXXIV INTRODUCTION.

treatise of geography strictly ancient, to introduce
illustrations from what properly belongs to modem
times. For example, a great number of modem
names of places are corrupted forms of the ancient
appellations ; and they are sometimes so altered that
the affiliation is not at once apparent. Instances of
this process are not wanting in our own island, in
the -cester, -Chester, and -caster {castra)y in -yic,
-wick, -wich {vicus)^ which form the terminations of
so many names of towns, and in Street, Straiten, &c.
{strata viarum) ; but the most remarkable are in the
modem nomenclature of localities in France. The
reader will find in Appendix, Note G, a selection of
ancient Gallic names and their modem descendants
which is worth studying, not merely as forming a
link between ancient and modem times, but as af-
fording, in a philological point of view, curious ex-
amples of the manner in which the French deal with
foreign and imported words, docking and paring
them down to suit the genius of their language.^

Sometimes also it is possible to trace back the
modem names, through various changes, to some
peculiarity in the natural or civil history of the
place. Thus, the towns of Coblentz in Rhenish
Prussia, of Cofrentes in Spain, of Conflans in
France and Conflans in Savoy, have all got their
names from the circumstance of being built at the
meeting of two rivers and called by the Bomans
^ See Appendix, Note G.

INTBODUCTION. XXXY

ad Omjluentes. Tuy in Spanish Gallicia is trace-
able to the Aetolian Tyde ; and is thus coupled in
the memory with the name of Tydeus, or rather of
his son Diomede {Tydides)) and Lisbon [Olyaippo)
is associated with the wanderings of Ulysses. Am-
purias is the name of a small town ia the N.E. of
Spain, and the adjoining district is called Ampnr-
dano; names springing, the one from the ancient
Emporiaej of old a place of resort to merchants
(e|iicopot) ; the other from the Smm Emporitanua.

7. Finally, it will give additional interest and
impressiveness to geographical instruction, as well
as serve to improve the taste and store the mind
with rich imagery and pleasing associations, if a
selection of appropriate passages from the poets of
antiquity be brought under the eye of the learner,
and his mind made so familiar with them by expla-
nation and comment, that they shall recur to it along
with the names, and even the words be retained in
the memory.^

It is upon the principles stated above that the
following summary of Classical Geography has been
I framed.

I am not aware of any good reason for departing
from the practice, sanctioned by D'Anville and the
older geographers, of printing the ancient names of
localities in the Italic character. I have accordingly

^ See Appendix, Note H.

XXXVl INTRODUCTION.

adhered to it, at least in the first mention of any
ancient place.

Still less am I a convert to the late unhappy in-
novation which substitutes the Greek names of the
heathen gods for the Latin, and presents them in
the letters of the English alphabet. The Eoman
titles of these poetical personages are woven into
the very tissue of British literature, and could not
be discarded without doing violence to many of our
earliest and most agreeable associations. To say
nothing of what the poets of Eome would lose, with-
out those of Greece gaining, by the change, let us
think how it would affect our own. The whole body
of English poetry is interspersed with such descrip-
tions and allusions as the following : —

Hence had the huntress Dian her dread bow,
Fair sUver-Bhafted queen for ever chaste I
Wherewith she tam'd the brinded lioness
And spotted mountain-pard, but set at nought
The firivolous bolt of Cupid,

Bacehuti that first from out the purple grape
Crushed the sweet poison of misused wine.

The noble sister of Publioola,
The moon of Rome ; chaste as the icicle
That's curded by the frost from purest snow,
And hangs on DiafCB temple.

Hyperion's curls — the front of Jow himself,
An eye like Mcvn to threaten and command,
A station like the herald Mercury
Just lighted on a heaven-kissing hilL

INTRODUCTION. XXXVU

Fly from the earth like feathered Mereuty !

He (Coriolanus) would not flatter Neptune for his trident.

As when a field

Of Ceres, ripe for harvest, waving hends

Her bearded grove of ears^ which way the wind

Sways them.

How should we be able to imbue our youth with the
love and admiration of such passages as these, if the
gods just named were only known to the next genera-
tion as Artemis, Eros, Dionysus, Zeus, Hermes,
Poseidon, and Demeter ? or how preserve the mea-
sure and melody of the lines, and the charm of
being associated with the names of Shakspeare and
Milton,

Those starry lights of genius that transmit
Thro* Time's dark void the radiance of their wit 1

NOTES TO INTRODUCTION.

NOTE A. — ^Leverwek ahd Adams. — Page xi.

" Theory, in M. Leverrier's hands, has for once out-
stripped observation. It enabled him to exercise a
power, which may be fitly compared to divination, not
only to point out the spot in the heavens where a Planet
hitherto unknown would be found, — ^but to weigh its mass,
number the years of its revolution round the Sun, and tell
the dimensions of its orbit, before the eye even of the as-
tronomer had singled it out from the thousands of stars
that twinkle in the firmament. All who have dipped
into the elements of astronomy know, that the planets
disturb each other^s motions by their mutual attractions.
Jupiter and Saturn afford the best example of the per^
turhations arising from this sort of action and reaction,
which produces a cycle of small changes in their orbits,
only completed in 850 years. The forces exerted by the
one planet on the other, may accelerate its motion, or
may retard it; may lengthen the major axis, or may
shorten it ; and in other respects slightly alter the form
or the position of its orbit. No permanent derangement
of the system, however, results from this cause ; for in
850 years the changes in the one direction compensate
those in the other. During half that period, for instance,
the forces tend to increase the major axis of Jupiter's

NOTES TO INTRODUCTION. XXXIX

orbit, and dimmish that of Satttm*s; and during the
other half they tend to increase the major axis of Saturn's
orbit, and diminish that of Jupiter's. In the one period
the planet's angular motion is less than its average rate ;
in the other it is greater. These inequalities are, indeed,
extremely minute, but modem astronomy can appreciate
and measure them. Given, the position, mass, and pe-
riodic times of two planets, the astronomer is able (though
it is no easy task) to calculate the perturbation which
either will produce on the other. But the problem which
is the counterpart of this — given, the perturbations, to
find the position, mass, and periodic time, of an unknown
disturbing body — ^is one of such infinite difficulty, that
certainly few astronomers belieyed it to admit of a satis-
ilBietory solution. It must be kept in mind, that the ine-
qualities of motion which are the effect of the disturbing
fcNTce are always exceedingly small, and that in the case
of Uranus the recorded obseryations are less numerous
and less ancient than for the other planets. Now, this
was the problem which M. Leyerrier undertook to resolye
and did resolve with triumphant success. It is a dis-
covery which has nearly doubled the bounds of the solar
system.

Mr Adams, a young Cambridge mathematician, had
been engaged at the same time in similar investigations,
and had arrived at conclusions nearly coinciding with
those of Leverrier." — Extracted from a Paper of Mr C!»
Maclaren voritten in October 1846.

NOTE B.— Pagexii.

This inclination of the moon's orbit (5° 9^) is a 70th
part nearly of the whole circumference of the hea-
vens : for every circle, whether great or small, is sup-

XL NOTES TO iNTBODUCTIOli.

posed to be divided into 360 equal parts called degrees ;
half of the circumference being of course 180°, and
the fourth part or quadrant of the circle being 90°. The
apparent diameter of the Sun is little more than half of
one of these degrees, varying according as it is measured
at the aphelion or perihelion of the Earth; that of the
Moon varying also according as she is in apogee or
perigecj L e. farthest from, or nearest to the earth.

It is a remarkable fact, that the Moon is much longer
than any of the Planets in revolving on her own axis,
the time of one rotation coinciding exactly with the pe-
riod of her monthly revolution round her primary.^ This
fact, resulting no doubt from the original formation, phy-
sical constitution, and mutual relations of the two bo-
dies, is the cause that the disk or hemisphere of the
Moon presented to the inhabitants of our globe is always
the same. An eye placed on the other hemisphere of
the moon could never be made aware by observation that
such a body as our earth existed, while to an eye on
the side which alone we see, it would appear at all times
a large luminary.

NOTE C— Page xvi.

Imagine the ends of a thread to be fastened at F and
S, two points in any plane surface, and the length of the
thread to be greater than the
distance between the points:
And let the point of a pencil be
put in the doubling or bight of ^\
the thread at E, so that its parts
between the pencil and the

^ Sir John Herschel thinks that the same thing holds true of
the Satellites of Jupiter. It is probahly the case with all the
secondaries.

NOTES TO INTEODUCTION. xli

points to which its ends are fastened may be stretched
into the straight lines £S, and £F. Suppose now the
point of the pencil to be moTed along the plane, while it
keeps the thread thus extended, — ^it will trace a curre line
AEDPG, which is called an ellipse.

Each of the points F and S to which the ends of the
thread are fastened, is called a, focus of the ellipse; and
G, the middle of the straight line FS, which joins the foci,
is called its centre. The distance between either focus
and the centre, is called the eccentricity of the ellipse.

The straight line AP which passes through the foci
and centre, and is terminated by the ellipse, is called the
transverse or greater axis, and the straight line DGr,
which, passing through the centre, is perpendicular to
the greater axis and terminated by the ellipse, is called
the conjugate or lesser axis.

From the way in which an ellipse is generated, it has
evidently this distinguishing property ; the sum of the
straight lines drawn from any point in the curve to the
foci, is always of the same magnitude, and equal to the
transverse axis.

The path of a planet in space being an ellipse having
the sun in S one of its foci, the point F — the extremity of
thegreateraxis nearest to the sun — miscalled the i^mA^Zion,
and A, the other extremity, is called the aphelion. The
axis itself is sometimes called the line of the apsides.

When a planet is at D or G, i.e., at either extremity
of the lesser axis, it is then at its mean distance from the
san.

An imaginary line S e, supposed to join the centres of
the sun and any planet, is called the radius vector. This
line has the remarkable property of always stveeping
over equal areas in equal times while the planet moves
in its orbit round the sun. — Note hy the late Professor
Wallace,.

xlii NOTES TO INTEODUCTION.

NOTE D.— Parallax of Fixed Stabs.— Page xix^

Since these obserrations were first printed, the paral*
lax, t. e, the angle snbtended by the diameter of the
earth's orbit as seen from a star, has been measured in
the case of three stars : 1. in the double star a Centauri,
by Professor Henderson, who found it to be 0".9128,
or nearly one second; 2. in 61 Cifgni, by Professor
Bessel, who found it to be 0".3483 ; and 3. in a Lyrae^
by M. Struve, who found it to be about 0".25.

Taking, as unity, the distance of Uranus from the Sun,
which is nearly two billions of miles, it will be found
that a Centauri, with a parallax of 0'^912S, is distant
11,900, or in round numbers, 12,000 times the radius of
the solar system, as bounded by the orbit of Uranjos.
The distance of 61 Cygni, will be about 36,000 of these
radii, and of a Lyrae^ about 48,000.

The testimony above reported, as to the existence and
measure of a Parallax, would haye been more satisfac-
tory to the unscientific reader, if the three eminent ob-
servers just mentioned had all directed their telescopes to
one star, and had all arrived at the same conclusion
without previous communication.

The observation least liable to suspicion is, so far as I
know, that of the late Mr Henderson, Professor of Practical
Astronomy in the University of Edinburgh. He made
out the parallax in a Centauri from observations of his
own at the Cape of Good Hope. Some time after his
return to Europe, he requested Mr Maclear, his successor
in the Royal Observatory at the Gape, to make fresh ob-
servations of that star, which is never visible in Britain.
This was done by that gentleman, and partly with a
new and improved instrument which had soon after
arrived from England ; and the results he sent home in
a rough state to Mr Henderson, who reduced them, and

NOTES TO INTRODUCTION. xliii

found them to give a parallax fally confirming what he
himself had first discovered.

It is satisfactory to be able to state these facts on the un-
questionable authority of his successor in the Edinburgh
Astronomical Chair (Professor Piazzi SmythJ and thus
to do an act of justice, rendered necessary by statements
in certain journals at the time, to so excellent an ob-
server and so modest and amiable a man, as the late
Professor Thomas Henderson. Had he lived another
year, he would have been proclaimed and rewarded as
the first discoverer of a parallax in any of the fixed stars.

NOTE E.— River-Basin.— Page xxiii.

The tracts of land mentioned in the text, which in
Continental Europe are often of vast extent, have been
long known to the naturalists and geographers of France,
and designated in their language by the word hassin ;
and this word, when I began nearly half a century ago
to teach geography upon the natural system, I first bor-
rowed from them and used as a foreign term, and after-
wards substituted our own corresponding noun basin.
This sense of the word, however, is a novelty in our
language, which, though it has been creeping into use,
can scarcely be considered as naturalized English. We
shall look in vain for such a meaning of hasin in Johnson's
Dictionary, even with Todd's additions, or in Webster's,^
or in Richardson's, or in Sullivan's,^ or in the Imperial
Dictionary, which is the latest ; and as the understand-
ing of what follows, in the text of this volume, depends
greatly on the reader's carrying along with him a clear

* In the « Revised Edition" of 1853, 1 toI. 8vo, this definition
is added, under Basin, " a space of country drained by a riyer/*
' One of the cheapest and best for general use.

xliv NOTES TO INTRODUCTION.

conception of the full import of the word as it is there
used, I shall endeavour to explain briefly the meaning
which is attached to it.

By nver^asin then is to be understood a tract or dis-
trict of country of considerable extent (for, to express the
same thing on a smaller scale, we have words enow —
valley, dale, dell, ravine, and the Scotch strath, glen,)
penetrated through its whole length by a river, and en-
closed on fAr^e sides by ranges of mountains or high
ground ;* on the side where the river rises, by the heights
which give it birth, and, on the two sides diverging
from the fountain-head, by a boundary of hills which
furnish feeders to the main stream. On the fourth side
the basin rrnist be more or less open to the sea, seeing
that if there were no such opening, the basin would be a
lake. The boundary, then, that encloses the basin at
the fountain-head, and on the two sides, is the summit
line of the heights ; — that line which parts the rivulets
descending from the declivity on either side, and which
is well called the watershed of the country {divortium
aquarum). The limit on the fourth side is the sea, which
receives the accumulated contributions of the main river
and all its tributaries. The distance between the lateral
enclosing heights may be fifty or a hundred miles, and,
to the eye of the traveller who crosses the intervening
space, the slope or shelving of the country towards the
main river in the centre may not be perceptible ; but that
it exists is obvious from the circumstance, that the cur-
rent of all the tributaries which he falls in with, in the
first half of his journey, flows tcith him, till he crosses the
main river and commences the second half, when he finds

^ The French geographers and map-makers call these bounding
heights, when they do not assume the form of mountains, doi, from
the Latin dortnm.

NOTES TO INTRODUCTION. xlv

the current of every stream he meets to be against him.
In the first half he travels secundo Jluminej in the second
adversoy and is therefore descending in the former case,
and ascending in the latter, however little he himself
may be aware of it.

NOTE R— Pagexxxii.

When I resolved first to teach Geography on the prin-
ciples here set forth, I made several attempts before I
finally succeeded in procuring a board on which the co-
loured delineations should be visible to every spectator in
a numerous class. Coach-pannel, mahogany, and several
of the hard woods stained or painted black, were all
tried and found liable to objections, — ^particularly to this,
that, as they reflected a good deal of light, there was
always a section of the pupils whose eyes were in the line
of the reflected rays, and who could therefore see nothing
of what I was demonstrating. I found at last that
a quadrangular board of beech-wood, not too finely
planed, and stained black with logwood or other dye,
answered best for absorbing all the rays of light, and
leaving the chalk lines in the fullest and most at-
tractive relief. Such a board of moderate dimensions
is by no means an expensive article ; and with regard
to the crayons of difierent colours, as many may be
made by teacher or pupil as will serve for years, for a
sum considerably under half-a-crown, if done according
to the following receipt : The basis, or ground-work of
all, is common chalk, which is first pounded to a moderate
fineness in a mortar ; to which add a small quantity of
Prussian or Chinese blue (6d. per oz.), pound together,
and moisten with a tea-spoonful of oat-meal gruel to
give it proper consistency. Working this up to a uni-

xlvi NOTES TO INTRODUCTION.

1

form paste of the shade of blae that is wanted, roll it be*
tween the palms of the hand into crayons, touch them on
the outside with weak starch, and lay them on blotting
paper in the sunlight or before a slow fire : when dry, they
will be ready for use. If there be added to the blue paste
while still in the mortar, a little chrome yellow (2d. per
oz.) a green paste will be the result ; or a little Bruns-
wick green, equally cheap, may be at once mixed with the
white chalk ; a pinch of red lead added to the same, will
make a red crayon of any intensity.

When with such simple materials I had completed the
skeleton delineation of Spain — the first in order of the
Mediterranean countries, — ^liaving placed the board on
an easel in a position to command every eye, I invited
the pupils to accompany me in an imaginary journey
over the mountains, or a voyage down the rivers in
search of objects worth noting. Tlie interest excited by
the joint appeal to the eye and the ear elicited in them a
desire to imitate those rude representations of mine,
either on paper at home, or on the board which they
were furnished with. In this way some pupils were al-
ways found among so many, who far outstripped in neat-
ness and accuracy of execution the hand that had trained
them. How entirely, indeed, I was myself relieved from
the necessity of working in this way, will appear from
the following fact, which must be in the recollection of
many old pupils of the School. A jet-black board, with-
out line, town, or indication of any kind, was placed,
on the day of Public Examination in August, before a
pupil selected from several equally able ; and one of the
Examiners being requested to name a classical country,
— Spain, Gaul, Italy, or Greece, — the boy, with no means
at his command but the knowledge he carried in his head
and the crayons he held in his hand, constructed, in
presence of a numerous audience, while the Examina-

NOTES TO INTKODUCTION. xlvii

Uon was going on, a board-map such as I hare de-
scribed, and so beautifully and accurately executed, that
I used it for the instruction of the succeeding class in my
demonstrations of the following year.

NOTE G.— Page xxjuv.

The following are examples of the transformation al-
luded to in the text. They are selected from the single
country of Gaul ; and it deserres to be remarked, that
the great majority of towns in the list — and the same
thing holds true in the country itself— take their names
from the tribes, and not (as happens in rare instances) from
those of ancient towns or military stations. Of the for-
mer kind are those in No. 1, of the latter those in No. 2.

No. 1. Lexaviij the tribe, gives the modem town Li-
sieux; Biturlges, Bourges; Caturiges, Chorges ; San^
tdnesj Saintes; Pictdnes v. Pictavi, Poictiers; Parisiij
Paris; Cadureij Quercy and Cahors; EburoviceSf E-
vreux ; Lemovices, Limdges, which Shakspeare makes an
English trisyllable, Limoges ; Aureliani, Orleans ; 2Ve-
wrt, in French, Treves, in German, Trier; Sendnes,
Sens ; BheddneSf Eennes ; Eemif Rheims ; Ambiani^
Amiens; Bellccdci, Beauvais; Suessiones, Soissons;
Camutes, Chartres ; Catalauni, Ch^lons-sur-Marne.

No. 2. CabiUonumy an ancient town, gives Challon-
sur-Saone; ilratwio-oww. Orange ; Autissiodurum, Au-
xerre ; Nemausiis, Nlmes ; Forum Julii, in France, Fr^-
jus ; in Italy, Friuli ; Mosae Trajectus^ Maestricht ;
Aventicumy Avenche.

Many of the towns enumerated in No. 1. appear to
have had originally distinct appellations of their own in
the native Celtic tongue, which were superseded by the
names of the tribes. A grea^t number of these primitive

xlviii NOTES TO IKTBODUCTION.

names with Latinized terminations have been preserved
in the work of Ptolemy — a geographer of the second cen-
tury of our era, — ^not a trace of which is to be found in any
other ancient writer, and even in Ptolemy only once men-
tioned as having belonged to some horde of barbarians as
little known, or worth knowing, as the places themselves.
And yet a large assortment of these ^ nuda locorum nomt-
na,' so destitute of interest to the modem reader whether
young or old, has found a place in not a few of our
school-books, serving no purpose but to encumber the
learner's memory and disgust him with the whole sub-
ject. Such are Condivincum,^ the oldest name of Nantz ;
Condate, of Rennes ; Agedincum, of Sens ; Divona^ of
Cahors; Durocortorum, of Soissons:' and many such
uticouth and useless names infest also the geography of
ancient Britain.

In elementary books of ancient geography, the progress
of the learner would be best consulted by strictly con-
fining the enumeration of localities to those of which
something memorable could be said, to the entire exclu-
sion of all such as are mere voces et praeterea nihil. I
have attempted a thing of this kind in a little work en-
titled, " First Steps m Ancient Geography," published ^
last year ; and as no country is spoken of there that does
not touch, in some point, the Mediterranean and its cog-
nate waters, it was not difficult to find something inter-
esting to say of every place I had occasion to name. But
even in the present volume, which takes a wider range

^ Alids, Gondimcnum; for the point of precedence between the o
and » is not yet settled among those who bring loads of leambg
to bear upon matters of moonshine.

' The reader who is curious in such minutiae will find a copious
list of them in D'Anville's ' Notice de la Gaule/ and will see to
what an extent these Celtic names were superseded by those of tht
tribes^ which furnish the modem appellations.

NOTES TO INTEODUCTION. xlix

and is intended for more advanced students, the mie will
be fonnd pretty rigidly adhered to. Considerable latitude
in this respect is allowable in a School Atlas : though
even there, it savours more of display than a desire to
be useful, when the maps are crowded with names
which are nowhere to be met with in the writings of the
ancients, except as items in the dry and barren catalogues
of Ptolemy or Pliny, or, still later, in the Antonine Itin-
erary or Peutingerian Tables. Mr Keith Johnston, in
his Classical Atlas, has exercised a wise discretion in
this respect, and has thus added not a little to the dis-
tinctness and beauty of his maps, without any sacrifice
of utility.

NOTE H.— Page xxxv.

In these ' Elements' I have followed out this principle
in two ways : —

1. A few short and striking quotations, descriptive of
the country or of places and things memorable in its
history, are attached in the Text to various localities by
nnmerical references at the foot of the page. These it
would have been easy to multiply : but it was thought
better to limit the selection to such passages as either
convey information, or stimulate curiosity by brief and
beautiful allusion. It would not be difficult to string
together almost any number of verses in which mention
is made of the Island of Crete ; and yet the combined effect
of them all might make less impression than three words
in the conclusion of an Ovidian hexameter —

JoTis incunabula Creten,

or the Horatian Sapphic —

Quae mmul centum tetigit potentem
Oppidis Creten.

d

1 NOTES TO INTRODUCTION.

Some pains were also taken in giving accurate refer-
ences to the original author, in the hope of tempting the
student to consult the context, and make himself better
acquainted with the poet quoted from : —

juvat integros accedere fontes^

Atque inde haurire.

2. The geographical portion of the book is closed
with a selection of extracts full of interesting local
description, which were too long for insertion in the
text. Passages of this kind are perpetually occurring in
the body of Roman poetry, and the sample here given
will serve, among other uses, to shew the importance and
necessity of giving a prominent place to geographical in-
struction in a course of classical education. In making
the' selection, I had an especial eye to those Latin poets
who are scarcely known by more than the name to our
educated youth ; in order that it might be not merely an
Anthologia Geographica, but a fasciculus of specimens
taken from Lucretius, Propertius, Lucan, Statius, Silius
Italicus, Claudian, &c., and of a kind to vary profitably
and agreeably the ordinary school routine.

STRUCTURE OF THE GLOBE

CHANGES IT HAS UNDERGONE.

When we remove the loose soil which covers the sur-
face of the earth, we find beneath it rocks assuming
various appearances, but which geologists divide into
two classes, named with reference to their ori^, Igneous
and Aqueous, or Igneous and Sedimentary. It is sup-
posed that the materials constituting the mass of the
globe had originally a very high temperature, which
kept them in a state of fusion, like melted metal, and
that the first solid rock consisted of a crystalline crust,
formed on the surface of the fluid mass when cooling
down, and was of the nature of granite or gneiss. This
rock, therefore, was igneous, or the product of fire. The
waters of the globe, which first existed in the state of
vapour or steam, parting with their heat, condensed
into liquids, and collecting in cavities and depressions,

lii STRUCTURE OF THE GLOBE AND

formed seas and oceans. The tides and currents of these
seas and oceans acting for countless ages on the granitic
crust, (which was probably bristled with salient points
and ridges, and further roughened by eruptions of fused
matter from the molten mass below) tore off portions
of it, ground them down to sand or mud, and spread
them out on the floor, or bottom of the water, in succes-
sive layers, which became consolidated into rock by
pressure, or by the infiltration of lime or silica. The
rocks so formed are called aqueousj as being the product
of water, or sedimentary^ because their substance settled
down from a state of mechanical suspension in water, aa
a sediment settles down in a muddy pool, or stratified^
because their materials arrange themselves in beds or
strata, parallel to each other. Of this description are
the sandstones, shales, clay-ironstones, mica and clay-
slates, impure limestones, &c., seen in the beds of rivers,
or on the flanks or crests of mountains ; but pure lime-
stones, though stratified, are not strictly speaking sedi-
mentary ; they are " chemical precipitates," that is,
their constituent parts have not been mechanically
suspended in the water but dissolved in it, and have
fallen down from it in layers or strata, in consequence
of a change in the temperature or condition of the fluid.
The oldest sedimentary rocks are thus composed of
the "waste" of the primitive crust, or of matter torn off
from it and pulverised by agitation in water, hence
called " detritus." But the new strata thus formed,
were, like the crust on which they rested, shattered by
earthquakes or eruptions of igneous matter, and being

THE CHANGES IT HAS UNDERGONE. liii

in their turn exposed to the attacks of tides and currents,
furnished additional detritus to aid in the composition
of other still newer steata j while the latter were again
subjected to the same treatment. In this way, through
the whole series of stratified formations, the newer rocks
of the sedimentary class have been formed at the ex-
pense of the older ones, both sedimentary and igneous.

The globe, though its outer crust had cooled down so
far as to become solid at a period vastly remote, still re-
tains in its interior a considerable share of its original high
temperature. In sinking shafts for mines, and in boring
artesian wells for water, the heat is found to increase at
the rate generally of one degree Fahr. for each fifty feet
of depth. From this it is inferred that at the depth of
a mile and a half the rocks will have the heat of boiling
water, that lead would melt at the depth of five miles
and a half, and silver at the depth of about seventeen
miles. The existence of hot springs in so many countries
is thus easily accounted for. Water descending through
a fissure in the rocks to the depth of a mile and a half,
and forced up again to the surface, would, (if it came in
a copious stream and rapidly,) have a temperature of
212°. If it came slowly, much of its acquired heat would
be lost in ascending.

The sedimentary rocks probably have at many parts
a thickness of fifteen or twenty miles, and it will be
readily conceived, that strata formed of sand or clay,
exposed for ages to the high temperature which prevails
at such a depth, will undergo some alteration. Accord-
ingly it is found that the oldest stratified rocks shew a

liv STRUCTURE OP THE GLOBE

great change in their mineral character, having become
crystalline, and assumed a resemblance to the granite on
which they rest. The rocks so changed are termed
"metamorphic," and they contain no fossils.

Besides granite there are other igneous rocks, of which
the most common species are porphyry, trap, and lava.
These existed first in the bowels of the earth in a state
of fusion, and being forced up from below, (hence called
, " eruptive" rocks,) were either injected among the sedi-
mentary strata, or laid over them. The vents or pas-
sages through which the fused matter ascended, gene-
rally remain filled with it, and are called " veins." In
bursting through the sedimentary strata, it necessarily
fractured and displaced them ; and hence, as might be ex-
pected, we find, that in places where the eruptive rocks
abound, the strata, though all originally continuous and
horizontal, are bent, broken, heaved up into inclined posi-
tions, or even set on their edges. The older eruptive rocks,
porphyry and trap, resemble granite in being less or
more " crystalline," that is, they either contain ** crystals"
embedded in a base, or they are aggregates, formed of
two or three minerals, in small grains or crystals, held
together by a powerful force of cohesion. Lava, which
is formed under very different conditions, is destitute of
the crystalline structure.

All the stratified rocks, except the very oldest, contain
" organic remains" or '• fossils," that is, remains or traces
of the plants and animals which anciently inhabited the
globe. Those of plants consist chiefly of " casts" or impres-
sions of the trunks, branches, and leaves of trees, the wood

THE CHANGES IT HAS UNDEBGONE. Iv

being replaced by stone, and the bark converted into char-
coal. The fossil remains of animals consist of the shells
of moUnsks, the bones of fishes, birds, and quadrupeds,
"casts" of their bodies or skeletons, "prints'' of the
feet of birds, reptiles, &c. In the newer rocks, the re-
mains are often very perfect, almost unaltered ; in the
older they are much decayed, often nearly obliterated.
These fossils, carefully studied, have revealed to us a
wonderful record of ancient life upon the globe, and
have greatly enlarged our ideas of the extent, variety,
and magnificence of creative power displayed in its his-
tory. They shew us that in the unfathomable depths of
past time, long before the creation of man, races of
beings existed, unlike those now living, yet remotely
allied to them, and after tenanting the earth for thou-
sands of years, disappeared; that they were replaced
by new races, which, after enjoying a similar long lease
of existence, vanished in their turn, to be again succeed-
ed by others; in short, that whole races of sentient
beings once inhabiting the globe, have had, like the
individuals composing them, their appointed terms of
existepce, at the close of which they died out or were
destroyed ; and that man and the inferior animals now
dwelling on the earth or in the ocean, (the present
"Fauna" as it is technically called,) constitute merely
the last term of a long series of creations. The history
of fossil plants probably exhibits changes as great ; but
they have been less studied, and are geologically less
important.
The remains of extinct animals are classified according

Ivi STRUCTURE OF THE GLOBE

to their age, and their age is determined by the relative
position of the rocks in which they are embedded. The
fossiliferous rocks have a thickness probably of six or
seven miles, and they may be arranged into a greater or
smaller number of groups, "formations," or periods.
For the present we divide them into six, beginning with
the lowest or oldest.

In the Lower Paloeozoic group,^ comprehending the
upper and lower Silurian* rocks, we find the first traces
of living beings, and in such variety, that they embrace
eleven out of the nineteen classes into which the animal
kingdom is divided. Among them are the families of the
polypi or corals ; crinoids and echinoderms, or star fishes ;
moUusks, or shell fish of many kinds ; annelides, or ani-
mals formed of rings like wonns ; trilobites, an extinct
family of Crustacea or crabs. Of the vertebrate or
" proper " fishes in this group, all the genera belong to
one of the four orders — ^founded on the form of the
scales — into which the fossil class has been divided.
They are of the " Placoid " order, of which we have
living specimens in the shagreen ray, and the Cestracion,
or New Holland shark.

In the Upper Palceozoic group, which embraces the
Old Eed Sandstone, Coal Formation, and Permian,* we

' From UatXMOf ancient, and Z»»9 an animal.

* So named by Sir B. Marchison who first studied and devel-
oped the true character of this group in that part of Wales which
was inhabited bj the ancient Silures,

^ A group of rocks of which the best type or example was found
by Sir R. Mnrchison in the Hussian province of Perm,

THE CHANGES IT HAS UNDEEGONE. Ivii

have genera of all the families included in the preceding,
with some additions. It is here we first meet with rep-
tiles of the family of Saurians or lizards, (nothosauros
and proterosanrus), but neither numerous nor large, —
" Ganoid " fishes, with scales like those of the Sturgeon,
added to the previously existing "Placoids " — Cirrhipeds,
or creatures of the barnacle family — Sea Urchins (echi-
nides) — Spiders (arachnides) — insects of the families of
beetles, grasshoppers, and dragon flies, (coleoptera, or-
thoptera, and neuroptera).

The Fauna of the Trias^^ or New Eed Sandstone
group, is characterised by numerous and large new gen-
era of reptiles. We have here the first introduction of
marine tortoises or turtles, (chelonians) — driver tortoises,
(trionices) — a huge toad, (the Labyrinthodon), probably
some yards in length — ^numerous new Saurians (palaeo-
saurus, theodontosaurus, cladyodon, &c.), some of them
of gigantic size. Two are very remarkable — ^the ichthy-
osaurus, reaching to 30 feet in length, and combining
the characters of a fish and a lizard — and the plesiosau-
rus or swimming lizard, also of large dimensions. In
this group also we have the first indications of two of
the other great classes of the animal kingdom, viz.,
bones of a small terrestrial quadruped, the "microlestes"
— and footprints of. a gigantic bird, with a step four or
five feet in lengthy and of course far larger than the
ostrich.

^ So named because it is composed of three sub-groups or
members.

Iviii STRUCTURE OP THE GLOBE AND

In the Fauna of the Jurassic or Oolitic^ group large
reptiles still predominate ; but of new genera. We find
here the Megalosaurus, a huge terrestrial carnivorous
lizard, the Teleosaurus and Cetiosaurus, gigantic cro-
codilians, the latter as large as a whale. The genera
of Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus pass into this group
from the preceding, and it is their last appearance.
Here too, we find the first genera of the land tortoise,
(testudo) ; with the marsh tortoise, (emys) ; and here also
we meet with the most anomalous of all iAie extinct
tribes which geology has revealed — ^the Pterodactylus, a
large flying reptile, uniting the characters of the bat and
the lizard. The bones of three species of terrestrial
quadrupeds have been found, but the family they belong
to is not perfectly ascertained. Three orders of insects
Hemiptera (bugs,) Hymenoptera (wasps and bees,) and
Lepidoptera (butterflies,) first appear in this group.

The Cretaceous or Chalk group makes us acquainted
with the most gigantic animal probably that ever trod
the earth, the Iguanodon, an herbivorous lizard, 60 feet
long, and as high as an elephant. On this reptile and
its two huge cotemporaries, the Hylseosaurus, and the
Megalosaurus (which first appeared in the Oolite), Pro-
fessor Owen has conferred the well merited title of
Dinosaurians, or " fearftdly large Saurians." Web-
footed birds (ducks, &c.) first appear in this group, and

^ From mv an egg, and ktfiaf a stone, because the rock consists
of small egg-shaped grains. • It is largely developed in Mount
Jura.

THE CHANGES IT HAS UNPEBOONE. lix

fishes of the Ctenoid and Cycloid orders, the former
having scales like the perch, the latter like the salmon.

The Fanna of the Tertiary group, (comprehending all
the rocks above the chalk) introduces us to a creation
departing widely from all that preceded it, and ap-
proximating in its great features to that amidst which we
live. It is characterised by numerous genera of large
terrestrial quadrupeds, of which no types are found in
.the previous groups, but most of which have their " re-
presentatives" in the living creation, though aU of them
are extinct. It is here we find ourselves surrounded by
forms with which the present Fauna has made us fiamiliar
— elephants, rhinoceroses, hippopotami, tigers, bears,
deers, sloths, hyenas, camels, oxen, horses, swine,
baboons, whales, seals, serpents, but all of different
ts^cies from those now existing. The vulture and eagle
are denizens of this group, and the gigantic Dinomis of
New Zealand. Nor have the large reptiles disappeared,
for the Megalochelys, a turtle with a carapace, or shield,
20 feet long, is a Tertiary fossil. New genera of Mol-
lusks, Annelides, &c., accompany all these changes.

It must be kept in mind that as the entire number of
species in any one group is not yet completely known,
the classification may undergo some change from future
discoveries ; and, more especially, that some genera now
known as existing only in the newer groups, may here-
after be found in the older.

Naturalists sometimes divide the whole existing and
extinct Faunas into four groups, characterised by the
most perfect or highly organised animal then existing.

Ix STRUCTUBE OP THE GLOBE AND

Thus in the Primary or Palaeozoic Fauna we have the
" Eeign of Fishes," because a vertebrate fish was the
most perfect animal then existing. In the Secondary
Fauna we have the " Reign of Reptiles ;" in the Tertiary
the ** Reign of Quadrupeds;" and the present Fauna
constitutes the " Reign of Man." It has recently been
found, however, that reptiles existed, though sparingly,
in the Palaeozoic Fauna, and the character here assigned to
it belongs only to the very lowest portion of it. The three
first ** reigns" comprehend a period of enormous duration,
compared with which the fourth " reign," embracing the
whole of man's sojourn npon the earth, shrinks into a
mere point ; and idle alarms have been raised about the
vast antiquity thus assigned to the globe, and its sup-
posed incpnsistency with the language of the Scriptures.
On this subject we quote the words of a very high autho^-
rity:—

" The Bible instructs us that man and other living
things have been placed but a few years upon the
earth ; and the physical monuments of the world bear
witness to the same truth. If the astronomer tells ua
of myriads of worlds not spoken of in the sacred records,
the geologist in like manner proves, (not by arguments
from analogy, but by the incontrovertible evidence of
physical phenomena,) that there were former conditions
of our planet, separated from each other by vast intervals
of time, during which man and the other creatures of his
own date had not been called into being. Periods such
as these belong not, therefore, to the moral history of our
race, and come neither within the letter nor the spirit of

THE CHANGES IT HAS UNDERaONE. Ixi

revelation. Between the first creation of the earth and
that day on which it pleased God to place man upon it,
-who shall dare to define the interval?" ^

In the existing creation, each considerable region has
certain tribes of animals in common with other regions,
and certain tribes peculiar to itself. The same division
of zoological life into distinct provinces is found to have
prevailed to some extent in ancient times. In the ex-
tinct Faunas of America and Europe of corresponding
age, there are some species common to both ; but the
majority have merely such a degree of resemblance as
constitutes them the "analogues" or " representatives,"
the one of the other. The number of fossil species of
animals known, of all kinds, exceeds 20,000.

CM.

1 Discourse on the Studies of the University, by the Rev. Adam
Sedgwick, Woodwardian Professor, Trinity College, Cambridge.

A SERIES

OF

ASTRONOMICAL TABLES,

CONSTRUCTED FOR THIS WORK.
Bt PaoFBSsoB PIAZZI SMYTH,

or THE UNIVBESITY OF BDUTBURGH.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PART I.— The three Bodies.

1. The Earth. 3. The Sun.

2. The Moon.

PART II. — ^Bodies circulating about the Sun as a primary.

1. Planets. 5. Orbits of Comets.

2. Orbits of Planets. 6. Zodiacal Light and Shooting

3. Planetoids and their Orbits. Stars.

4. Comets.

PART III. — Bodies reyolyino about Planets as prim aribs.
Satellites of the Planets.

THE EARTH. Iviii

PART L— THE THREE BODIES.

1. THE EARTH,— Symbol ®.

Shape and size, approximately, sphere 8000 miles in
diameter.

Shape and size, accurately a spheroid, with
Polar dimensions = 7898 miles.
Equatorial dimensions = 7924 miles.

Mean density, i, e, specific grayity = 5*67, distilled water
being = 1.

Force of gravitation at the surface = 16 feet movement
in 1st second.

Force of gravitation at the distance of Moon = 0*004 feet
in 1st second.

Rotation on axis, measured by the Sun, or solar day,
= 24 hours solar time.

Rotation on axis, measured by the Stars, or sidereal day,
= 23h. 56m. 4-0906s. solar time.

Inclination of axis to plane of orbit, or " obliquity of eclip-
tic," = 23° 27^ 56-5."
Annual diminution of do., = 0*458".
Centrifugal force at equator = 0*00346.
Light, derived from the Sun.

Light occupies in its passage from Sun to Earth =
8m. 13-3s.

Orbitual motion of Earth in that space of time, and conse-

Ixiv THE EARTH.

quent error in apparent place of Sun, called "aberra-
tion of light," = 20-25", consequently

Velocity of light = 192,000 miles in 1 second.

Precession of the equinoxes in length in one year, = 50*1.

Complete revolution of equinoxial points = 25,868 years.

Constitution, rocky mass cooling down by radiation from
a primitive molten condition.

Condition of surface — ^much diversified by water and dry
land, and their actions upon each other.

Atmosphere — ^height = 50 miles.

Atmosphere — ^pressure = 151bs. on square inch.

Atmosphere — maximum effect of refraction at the hori-
zon in distorting the appearance of heavenly bodies

= 34' r.

Atmosphere— clouds, height of the

Denser, under 0*5 miles ; of the
Thinner, under 4*0 miles.

THE MOON. IxT

2. THE MOON,— Symbol, d .

Shape, spherical.
Size = 2160 miles in diameter.
Volume (Earth miity) = 0*018.
Weight (Earth unity) = 0-012517.
Mean specific gravity (cubic foot of material) = 0*619.
Illuminating power (Moon full, and at mean distance],
by light reflected from the Sun, = 1 wax candle at 12
feet distance.
Brightness (Sun unity) = 0-000033.
Heat inappreciable.
Greatest distance = 250,000 miles.
Mean distance = 237,000 miles.
LfCast distance = 224,000 miles.
Excentricity of orbit = 0*055.
Mean synodical revolution, or that which determines thQ

phases, = 29-53 days.
Mean sidereal revolution, i.e. the return of the Moon to

the same place among the stars, = 27-32 days.
Mean motion in a solar day = 13° 10' 15".
Inclination of axis to plane of orbit = V 20' 11".
Apparent diameter when nearest to us = 33' 31*1",
Apparent diameter, mean distance, = 31' 7*0".
Apparent diameter farthest off = 29' 21-9".
Mean parallax = 57' 0*9".

Eevolution on axis = time of revolution round Earth,
Constitution, rocky, volcanic, mountainous, perfectly dry,
and long since cooled down from a state of melting heat.
Condition of surface, unchanging.
Atmosphere, inappreciable, and clouds, none: so that with
like illumination from the Sun, the mountains and val^
leys are always equally well seen in the telescope,

Ixvi THE SUN.

3. THE SUN,— Symbol 0.

Shape, spherical.

Size = 883,000 miles in diameter.

Volume (Earth miity) = 1,407,124.

Weight (Earth unity) = 357,000.

Specific gravity (Earth unity) = 0-25.

Illuminating power (at Earth's distance of 95,000,000
miles) = 5570 wax candles at 1 foot distance.

Colour, white, by accumulation and combination of pro-
portionate quantities of red, yellow, and blue rays.

Intensity of heat, greater than any artificial mode of pro-
duction.

Rotation on axis = 25 days.

Inclination of axis to plane of ecliptic = 7" 30".

Greatest distance = 96,600,000 miles.

Mean distance = 95,000,000 miles.

Least distance = 93,400,000 miles.

Mean apparent diameter = 32' 1*8".

Constitution — a dark and perhaps cool central body;
coated with an atmosphere, very dense, and containing
several concentric strata of compact clouds.

Photosphere — the outer stratum of cloud, the external
edge of which is, to us, the visible surface of the Sun,
and gives out all the light and heat which we feeL

Condition of surface — extreme agitation and incandes-
cence, as from excessive heat.

PLANETS.

Ixvii

PAET IL— BODIES CmCULATING ABOUT
THE SUN AS A PRIMARY.

1. PLANETS.

Names.

Diameter

in English

miles.

Mean angu-
lar diametei
from Earth.

Rotation
on axis in
solar days.

Compres-
sion. (

Volume,
Earth = 1.)

II

Day. h. m.

Mercnry...

3,140

6-7

1 5

0-06

Venus......

7,700

16-9

23 21

0-96

Earth

7,916

1

33^7

1-00

Mars

4,100

5-8

1 39

II

014

Planetoids

nndetermined

inappreciabii

unknown

1

nappredable

Jupiter

90/)00

38-4

9 56

t».

1414-20

Saturn

76,068

17-1

10 29

TS

734-80

Uranus

34,500

3-9

9 30

82-00

Neptune...

42,000

2-8

unknown

150-00

Mean speci-

Force of

gravity,

[Earth = 1,)

Inclination

Light and

Namea.

fic gravity

Weight,

of Planets'

heal

of material,

(Earth == 1.)

CEarth = l.)

equator to

received

plane of orbit

Mercury...

2-94

Mo

0-18

o 1 II

unknown

6-656

Venus

0-92

0-91

0-90

75

1-932

Earth

1-00

1-00

1-00

23 27 35

1-000

Mars

0-95

0-60

0-16

30 18 11

0-436

Planetoids

unknown

unknown

unknown

0-130

Jupiter

0-24

2-45

333-61

3 5 30

0-036

Saturn

0-14

1-09

101-78

31 19

0-011

Uranus

0-24

1-05

19-93

90

0-003

Neptune...

0-23

1-20

31-79

unknown

0-001

Ixriii

PLANETS.

2. ORBITS OF PLANETS.

Names.

Mean distances

from Snn in
English miles.

Periodic time,
or revolution

round the
Sun, in mean

solar days.

Mean
distance in
terms of
Earth's dis-
tance.

Periodic

time in temui

of Earth's

period.

Mercury...,

Venus ,

Earth

Mars ,

Planetoids.,

Jupiter ,

Saturn

Uranus ,

Neptune...,

37,000,000

69,000,000

95,000,000

144,000,000

263,000,000

494,000,000

906,000,000

1,822,000,000

2,869,000,000

87-97

224-70

366-26

686-98

1684-74

4332-62

10759-30

.30686-82

60624-63

0-38709
0-72333
1-00000
1-62369
2-77091
6-20277
9-53885
19-18239
30-20260

0-24084

0-61618

1-00000

1-88079

4-61244

11-86180

29-46656

84-01362

165-97660

Names.

To illustrate the laws of elliptic motion.

Cubes of mean Squares of pe- Same corrected
distances. riodic times. for mass.

Hodrly or-
bital motion
in English
miles.

Mercury....

Venus

Earth

Mars

Planetoids..

Jupiter

Saturn

Uranus

Neptune....

0-058

0-378

1-000

3-537

21-275

140-833

857-937

7058-428

27550-720

0-058

0-378

1-000

3-537

21-275

140-702

867-689

7068-288

27548-260.

140-833

867-937

7058-428

27550-720

109,300
80,000
68,000
55,100
40,900
29,800
22,000
15,500
12,400

Names.

Excentricity
of orbit in

terms of the

semi-major

axis.

Inclination

of orbits to

plane of

ecliptic.

Longitude
of ascend-
ing node.

Longitude

of
perihelion.

Mean

longitude

1st Jan.

1801.

Mercury

Venus

Earth

Mars

Planetoids.....

Jupiter

Saturn

Uranus....
Neptune...

0-206
0-007
0-017
0-093
0-200
0-048
0-056
0-047
0009

7
3 23

1 51
20

1 19

2 30

46

1 47

46 68
74 64
48

110 18

98*26

111 67
73

130 5

74 22
128 44

99 30
332 24

li" 9

89 9

167 31

47 13

166 1
11 33

100 39
64 23

11215
135 20
177 48

PLANETOIDS. — COMETS.

Ixix

3- PLANETOIDS.

Names.

Mean
distances.

Periods.

Ezcentri-
cityof
orbits.

[nclination
of orbit

When
Sisoovered.

Flora

2-202
2-296
2-336
2-343
2-362
2-376
2-385
2-387
2-425
2-446
2-448
2-577
2-582
2-582
2-651
2-669
2-767
2-773
2-933
3-151

Days.
1193-3
1270-5
1303-3
1310-1
1325-7
1337-6
1345-6
1346-9
1379-6
1397-2
1399-a
1511-4
1515-4
1515-9
1576-5
1592-7
1681-1
1686-1
1834-7
2043-4

0-157
0-216
0-218
0-046
0-088
0-134
0-232
0-123
0-202
0-156
0-098
0-189
0-170
0-086
0189
0-256
0-076
0-239
0-131
0-101

o /

5 53

10 10

8 23
5 42
7 8

50
5 28
5 36

14 47

1 33

4 37

5 19

9 6
16 33

11 44
13 3
10 37
34 37

3 3
3 47

1847
1852
1860
1852
1807
1852
1847
1848
1847
1852
1850
1845
1851
1850
1851
1804
1801
1802
1852
1849
1852
1852
1852
1853
1853
1853
1853

Melpomene....

Victoria

Thetis

Vesta

Massilia

Iris

Metis

Hebe

Fortuna

Parthenope....
Astrsea

Egeria

Ennomia

Juno »...

Ceres

Pallas

Psyche

Hygeia

Thalia

Lutetia

Calliope

Proserpine

■Euteme

Themis

Phocea

4. COMETS.

Name.

Shape.

Volume of elastic gaseous

envelope,
(Earth's volume = unity.)

Light and heat

received from

Sun.

At peri-
helion.

At mean
distance.

At
aphelion.

At peri-
helion.

Atar
phelion.

Halley's
£ncke*s
Biela's..

1843.. 1

sub-elliptical
sub-globular
sub-globular
very eccentric
ellipse

300

12

100

J200

9,000

96

400

1,200,000

18,000
144
700

2,400,000

2-89
8-70
1-37

47000-00

0-001
0-060
0026

0-001

Ixx

COMETS.

5. ORBITS OF COMETS.
In Illustration of Keplsr^s Laws of Elliptical Motion.

Names.

Distance from Sun in tenns of
Earth's distance.

Periodic

time

in terms of

Earth's

period.

Cubes of

mean
distance.

At
perihelion.

At mean
distance.

At
aphelion.

Halley's....
Encke's....
Biela'a

0-589
0-347
0-853

18-079
2-224
3-518

35-579
4-096
6-179

76-871
3-316
6-599

5090-10
ll^OO
43-54

Names.

Square of

periodic

times.

Hourly motion in
English miles.

Area described.

At
perihelion.

At
aphelion.

At
perihelion

At
. aphelion.

Halley's ...
Encke's....
Biela'fl

5090-10
11-00
43-54

491,400
291,700
149,600

8,300
24,700
20,600

1376
481
606

1376
481
606

ELEMENTS OF ORBITS OF COMETS.

Date of

Perihelion

perihelion
passage, or

distance,
(Earth's dis-

Excentricity,

Inclination.

Direction of
motion.

name.

tance = 1.)

1680

0-006

0-999

o

61

direct.

1769

0-120

0-998

41

direct.

1811

1-035

0-995

73

retrograde.

1819

0-343

1-000

80

direct.

1843

0-005

0-999

35

retrograde.

1844

0-250

1-000

46

direct.

1847

0^044

1-000

48

direct.

1853

0-305

1-000

62

direct

Halley'8 in
1835

0-587

0-967

18

retrograde.

Encke's in
1835

0-346

0«845

13

direct

Biela's in
1846

0-856

0-756

13

direct

0-855

0-759

13

direct

ZODIACAL LIGHT. Ixxi

6. ZODIACAL LIGHT.

This is one of the most extensive phenomena in the solar
system ; but of such feeble light as to be barely yisible
in the darkest nights.

It is disposed somewhat excentrically about the Sun,
and is flattened out nearly in the plane of the ecliptic.

In that plane it has a radius of about 90 millions of
miles, and at right angles to that plane, about 20
millions of miles.

Occasionally it reaches as far as the Earth's orbit, and
the separate particles of it are then distinguished as
the so called " shooting stars.''

They revolve about the Sun as planetary bodies, and are
recognised by the enormous velocity which they are
observed to have, and which nothing but revolving
motion at that distance from the Sun could possibly
give. (See Planetaky Table).

On their approaching nearer to the Earth still, they oc-
casionally fall upon it, as " meteoric" stones ; and are
always found to have a very remarkable chemical
composition. They become inflamed and explode on
entering our atmosphere; having previously shone
only by light reflected from the Sun, like the Moon
and aU the planets.

On the whole, the Zodiacal Light is supposed to be a
remnant of the great nebulous atmosphere about the
Sun, out of which the planets may have been formed
by condensation.

Ixzii

SATELLITES OP THE PLANETS.

PART m.— BODIES CIRCULATING
ABOUT THE PLANETS AS PRIMARIES.

SATELLITES OP THE PLANETS.

SyBtem.

SateUites'
names.

Diameter

in English

miles.

Mean dis-
tance from
primary in

English
miles.

Periodic
times in
solar days.

When
discovered

Earth...

Moon

2,160

237,000 j 27-322

B.C.

Jupiter..

lat

2,508
2,068
3,377
2,890

272,000 l-7fi.Q

1610

2d

432,000

727 000

1,214,000

3-552

7-572

16-689

3d

4th

Saturn..

Dark Ring,

Interior

Exterior

Bright Rings,

Interior

(rreat division
Fine division

Exterior

Thickness of

Mimas

Enceladus ...
Tethvs

97,000
114,000

117,009
153,000
168,000
176,000
100

4,000

...

127,000
163,000
202,000
259,000
362,000
837,000
1,016,000
2,440,000

0-942

1-370

1-888

2-740

4-518

15-945

21.297

79-330'

1850

1659

1665
1825

1789
1789
1684
1684
1684
1655
1848
1671

Dione

Rhea

Titan

Hyperion

Japetus

Uranus..

1st

...

127,000
172,000
178,000
226,000
294,000
341,000
392,000
784,000
1,568,000

2-50

4-13

8-706

13-465

1851
1845
1851
1787
1787
1787
1787
1787
1787

2dezi8t.doubtf.
3d

4thexls.doubtf.
6th

6thexis.doubtf.
7th

8thexis.doubtf.
9th do.

Neptone

Ist

...

240,000

5-9

1846

ELEMENTS

PHYSICAL AND CLASSICAL

GEOGRAPHY.

THE GEOGRAPHY

TIE ANCIENT WORLD,

IN SO FAR AS IT IS SUBSEBYIENT

TO THE UNDERSTANDING AND ILLUSTRATION

OP THE CLASSICS.

I.

EISPANIAy Oraece et Poetice IBERIA^
(SPAIN AND PORTUGAL)

Was the name given by the Eomans to a penin-
sula of quadrangular shape, in length and in breadth
about GOOmiles, which occupies the S. W. extremity
of Europe, and is wholly contained within the lines
of 36° and 44** N. latitude, and of Z\° E., and 9^''
W. longitude.

PHYSICAL CHARACTERS OF THE PENINSULA.

An elevated ridge of Mountain and Table-land
extends from N. to S., forming the water-shed of
the country, and giving origin to all the great rivers,
some of which find their way to the Mediterranean,
and some to the Atlantic. To this crest, or back-
bone as it were of the peninsula, are attached, on
the side facing the West, ranges of mountains and

B

2

high ground, running in a S. W. direction and near-
ly parallel to each other ; and these enclose, on two
sides, the Basins or tracts of country through which
the rivers and their tributaries flow.

The main rirers that rise on the Western slope of
the central ridge aad faU into the Atlantic, are fimr
in number : — 1. DuRiuSj the Du^ro (in Spanish,)
Douro (in Portuguese), the vast basin of which,
bounded by the Cantabrian and Asturian Mountains
on the North side, and by those of CastiUe on the
South, includes the less considerable valley oiMiniuSj
the Minho ; 2. Taqus^ fisuned. for the gold found in
its sand ;^ 3. AnaSj the Guadiana ; and 4. BaetiSj
the Guadalquivir, (pronounced Wad-al-keveer, «. e.
in Arabic, " the great river.")*

The main rivers that rise on the Eastern slope
of the water-shed and fall into the Mediterranean
are also/wr, but, excepting the last, of much shorter
course: — 1. TADERy the Segura; 2. SuOBOy the
Xucar ; 3. TuriAj the Guadalaviar ; and 4. Iberus^
the Ebro : and the basins of these rivers are enclosed
in like manner by lateral ranges of hiUs which start
off, like spinal processes, from the side of the central
range fronting the East.

In tracing the rivers just enumerated, secwndojk'
mine J from fountain-head to the mouth or emhovckarej

^ auriferi ripa bc^ta Ta^*— Ov. Am. i. 15, 34.

' The beauty and fertility of the Baetii and its banks are finely
allnded to in Mart zii. 99 : —

Bstis, olivifera crinem redimite coron%
Aurea qui nitidis veUera tingis aquis,

Qtt«m Bromiuiy quem PdUut amat I — * The fayourite of Bacchus
and of Minerva:' i. «. abounding in wine and oil.

AND TOWNS OF HISPANIA. 3

we fall in successiyel j with the following towns and
localities : —

1. On the DuBiuSj near the source^ and not far from
the modem town of Soria, stood Numantiaj which
Floras calls Hispaniae decus. It sustained a fonr-
teen years' siege against the Romans^ and was taken
at last by Scipio Africanus Minor.' At the month
stood Ccdhy or Partus Calensisy whence the kingdom
of Portugal derires its name. CaMe is now Oporto ;
and from this comes the word ^ Port/ as applied to
wine shipped from that harbonr.

In the basin of the Dusiusweie also, on the North
side, Asturica Avffustaj Astorga, and Legio viigemi-
na, Leon. On the South side of the basin, Salmanticaj
Salamanca, and Segamay famed for an aqueduct said
to have been the work of Trajan, and still, with its
double tier of arches, in good preservation.

2. On the Tagus, ToUtamy Toledo, N(yrba Cae-
sareay where was a famous bridge over the river, now
Alcantara, ScaMbiSy Santarem, a corruption of St.
Irene ; OltsipOy (a word which probably suggested
the fable of its having been founded by Ulysses)
now Lisbon, the Capital of Portugal.

In the basin of the Tagus, North side, were Com-
plutumy Alcala, on the Henares, where Cardinal
Ximenes founded a University, and where he pub-
lished in 1515 the famous Polyglot Bible commonly
called Bihlia Complutensis ; Mantuay supposed to be
the site of the modem Capital of Spain, Madbid :
and not £ar from the river, Lihoray Talavera.

' Ille Nnmantma traxit ab urbe notam. — Ovid, Fast i. 596.
longa ferae bella Numaotiae. — ^Hob. Od. ii. 12. 1.

4 BIYEBSy BIYEB-BASINS,

3. On the Anas^ half-way down, Metellimmj
founded by Caecilius Metellus, now Medellin, hirth-
place of Fernando Cortez ; EmeritaAuffustay a settle-
ment provided by Augustus for his disbanded vete-
rans {emeriti) J once the Capital of Lusitania, now
Merida; andPaa;j4tf^i^to, which the Moors corrupted
into Badajoz.

4. On the Baetis, near the source, Castuhy^ of
which Hannibal's wife Imilce was a native, now
Cazlona; the forest-land around — ^the saUus Cos-
hdonensis of Livy — ^is part of Mans MartanuSy the
great table-land now called the Sierra Morena, the
scene of the fabulous adventures of Don Quixote.
Farther down the river Corduba (Cordova) birth-
place of Lucan* and the two Senecas;* Italtcay birth-
place of the Emperor Trajan, and some think, of
Hadrian also and the poet Silius Italicus ; Hispalis^
Seville, which ranks as the second city of modem
Spain.

. The basin of the Baetiswss occupied in the dark
ages by the Vandals, and was then called Yandalitia,
— a name which appears now in the altered form of
Andalusia.

* Castillo, urbs Hispaniae valida ac nobilis, et adeo oonjuncta
Bodetate Poenis, at uxor inde Hannibali esset. — Liy. xxit, 4L

' In the poem which Statins dedicates to the memory of his
Mend Lucan, (Sylv. ii. 7.) he raises him in the foUowing lines abore
Homer and Virgil ; a compliment which might have appeared less
extravagant, had Lncan, instead of dying at 26, lived to a maturer
age:—

Attollat reflnos in astra fontes,

Graio nobilior Melete, Baetis !

Baetin, Bfantoa, provocare noli. — Stat. Silv. ii. 7, 33.
' Duosqua Senecas nnicumque Lucanun,

Facnnda loquitur €orduba. — Mart. i. 62.

AND TOWNS OF HISPANIA. 5

5. Tader, the Segura, (the farthest South of those
main rivers which fall into the Mediterranean^) after
passing the modem city of Murcia, flows through
the Campua Spartarms^ a plain so called from its
abounding in spartum (esparto), a reed much used
by the ancients for the cordage of ships, and various
economical purposes.'^

6. SuCRO, the Xucar, had at its mouth a city of
the same name (tcoXk; 6[muvu{jio<, Strab.), where a
mutiny once broke out in the Boman army which
was quelled by Scipio Africanus Major, (Liv. xxviii.
c. 26, &c.)

7. At the embouchure of TuRiA^ (Guadalaviar)
was Vdlmtiaj a Boman colony, now the Capital of
Valencia, a Spanish province unequalled in natural
advantages. It is called by the natives La Huerta,
{hortu8)y and wants nothing but good government
and enterprise to make it the ^ garden' of Europe.

8. On the Ibehus, half-way down, stood Salduba,
afterwards Caesabaugusta^ now Zaragoza, made
illustrious in the last war by its successfdl resistance
to the French invaders in 1808-9. The broad basin
of the Ebro, lying between the Pyrenees and the
Central Bidge, is watered, from the heights of both,
by numerous tributary streams, the most remarkable
of which are, on the North side, the Bicoris^ on
which stood Her da (Lerida), where Caesar defeated
Pompey's generals, Afranius and Petreius, A. u. 706,

^ See Plin. Nat. Hist B. 19, c. 2, and Li?y, B. 22, c. 10. The
Qse of it mentioned above goes as far back as the Homeric times.
K«i )ff %9v^9t rirn*'! nm^ H»t g ie a^r » \iXovreu. — HoM, II. B. 135.

6 TOWNS ON THE COAST OF HISPANIA.

(Lucan. iv. 16), and on the Sonth side, /Sofo,'
(Xalon), on which stood BilMlisj the native town of j
the poet Martial.

After thns followingtheconrseof rivers,if we next
take the line of coast for our guide, we shaU come
upon Towns, which have been indebted for their !
importance and notoriety, in Ancient or Modem
times, to the convenience of harbourage, and their
facility of access and resort to commercial and colo-
nizing foreigners.

In this tour of the Coast, starting from C. Finis-
terra, the N. W. angle of the Peninsula, and going
South, we find the town and harbour of Coruima
{Portm Magnus), called by British traders the
Groyne ; where Sir John Moore fell in the moment
of victory, (Jan. 1809.) ^Corunna' is thought to bea
corruption of CoLUMNAyfrom an ancient tower 92 feet
high, still standing, said to have been built by Her-
cules. At the S. W. angle of the Peninsula, between
the mouth of the Baetis and the Fretum Hercukum
(Strait of Gibraltar) stood the very ancient town
of Oadiry founded and so named by the Phoenicians.
The Eomans called it Oades, and considered it as
the extreme point of the earth westward (^ Sohsque
cubilia Oades'), in like manner as the Ganges was
reckoned the farthest point eastward. When Juve-
nal says, X. 1, — " Omnibus in terris quae sunt a
Gaudibus usqe Auroram et Gangen," he means to

^ The 8dlo wais used in the preparation of steel— hence Mart
ealls it Armortm 8alo t^mperator, and says elsewhere, Salone pi
f^rrum gdat.

TOWNS ON THE COAST OP HISPANIA. 7

express the entire length of the earth. (?aJtr is the
modem town and harbour of Cadiz.^

Within the Strait is Galp^ (the Eock of Gibral-
tar), which the poets feigned to be one of the pillars
erected by Hercules as his meta laborum^ and as the
Western terminus of the habitable globe.

Proceeding along the shore of the Mediterranean,
we find, a little inland, Munda^^ where Caesar de-
feated the two sons of Pompey, (a. u. C. 708.) Then
comes Nova Carthago (Cartagena), the capital of
the Carthaginian possessions in Spain, till it was
taken by Scipio Africanus Major, A. u. c. 542, b. Chr.
210.^^ A little north of Valencia was SaguntumP
(^ urbs ilia, fide et serumnis inclita'), the stoiming of
which was Hannibal's first act of aggression in the
second Punic war.^^ Out of its ruins was built a
modem town, thence called Murviedro, i. e. Muri
Veteres. Between the mouth of the Ebro and Py-
renees were Tarraco^^ (Tarragona), chief city of the

* It is sometimes also by the poets called TarUuu$f—h word which

is Tagaely applied by the andents to the rirer Bsetis, to the Isle of

St Leon, fanned by its two branches, and to the town of Cadiz : —

Presserat ocddnus Tartesaa littora Phoebos. — Oy. Mxt. xir. 416.

^® Munda Emathios (i.e. Thessalos) Italis paritnra hibores. —

SiL. It. hi. 392.
^ Urbs imposta jngo, pronmnqne excorrit in aequoTf
Et tata eetemo defendit moenia flneto* — Sil. It. xy. 229.
Latins regnes aYidum domando
Spiritom, qnam si Libyam remotis
Gadibus jnngas, et uterpie Posnut

SerYiat uni.— Hob. Od. ii. 2. 9.
^'CiYitasealonge opulentisaima ultra Iberum fuit, sitapassus
mille ferme a man. OriundiaZacyntbo insula dicuntur. — Li y. xxi. 7*
^ Vide LiY. B. 26, c. 42-6.
^^Tanraco Campano tantum cessura Lyaeo. — Mart. xiii. 118.

8 ISLANDS, CAPES, DIVISIONS, AND

Boman Province Tarra4ymm8i8j and Barclno (Bar-
celona) with its citadel, Mona Jovis (Monjnich), said
to have been built by Hamilcar Barcas, father of
Hannibal.

Off the coast of Valencia, is the group of Baleares
In8uloe^^ Major and Minovy famed for famishing
corps of slingers to the Boman armies ; and the
PityuacB (ictTuc, pinus), Ebuma^ Ivi(}a, and OphiusGy
Formentera.

TheCapesof the Peninsula are, Promontorium IW-
kucum (Ortegal) the most Northern point : on the
W. coast, Artabrum (Finisterra) ; Magnum (Eock
of Lisbon) ; Barhariwrny Espichel ; Sacrumy St. Vin-
cent ; Junonisy Trafalgar : — The two last named have
become famous, in modem times, for the great naval
victories gained by Jervis and Nelson.

Ancient Divisions. — The Peninsula, in the time
of the Roman Republic, was divided into Dtue His-^
panicsy Citertor and Ulterior y by the river Iberus:
Under Augustus into three Provinces : — 1. Tabba-
CONENSiSy comprising aU the north and north-east
parts, from the Durius and Tader to the Pyrenees,
in which were the native tribes Callatdy AstiireSy
Cantabri^^ Concani^'^ Carpetdniy UergeteSy CeUi-
berty &c. 2. BAETiCAy all the Southem part, as
far north as the Aims and Tadery in which were the
Turdetdniy BaMuU Poenty &c, ; and, 3. LusiTANiAy

^^ Stnpea torquentem Balearis verbera fondae. — ^Virg. 6. i. 309.

FuncUl bella gereni Balearis et alite plmnbo. — Sil. It.
^* Gantabram indoctam juga ferre nostra. — ^Hob. Od. ii. 6.

Gantaber, ser6 domitus catena. — Hob. Od. iii. 8.

Gantaber non ante domabilis. — Hob. Od. It. 14, 41.
^^ Laetum equine sanguine Concanum. — Hob. Od. iii. 4, 84.

HISTORICAL EPOCHS OF HISPANIA. 9

the Western and Central part, between the Anasy
the DuriuSy and the Atlantic, in which division were
the Vettones and the country called Cuneua. Most
of the tribes named above are mentioned by Liyy.

HiSTOBiCAL Epochs. — ^The Phoenicians were the
first civilized people that visited Spain, more than
1000 years before Christ : they founded Oadirj
MalScaj &c. Afterwards the inhabitants of Mas-
sUiay in Graul, built Bhoda, now Bosas, and Emporice
now Ampurias, in the N. E. comer of the Peninsula.
The Carthaginians, coining next, built TarrdcOy
BarcmOy and Nova Carthago^ and held possession of
a great part of the country, tiU they were expelled
by the Eomans ; who, after contending for the pos-
session of Spain for a period of 200 years before
Christ, remained masters of it during the first four
centuries of the Christian era. For the next 300
years, down to the early part of the 8th centmy, it
was occupied by the barbarians who overran the
Boman Empire, particularly by the Vandals and
Goths; and for seven centuries after that, by the
Saracens or Moors. The Spanish Christians, who
had taken refdge in the mountains of Asturias, en-
croached by degrees on the Mahometans, pressed
them southward, and succeeded in erecting a number
of separate petty kingdoms, which were all at last
united under the government of Ferdinand and Isa-
bella, A.D. 1479.

Cbossing the Pyrenees, we find ourselves in An-
cient Gaul.

10

II.

GALLIA TRAN8ALPINA

Was a portion of the earth's surface^ lying wholly
within tiie quadrangular space enclosed by the lines
of N. Lat. 42° and 52°, and of ^ W. and 8^ E.
Long. The term comprehends not only the coTin-
try of the Helvetii and other Alpine tribes lying to
the hfi of the Rhine, but the whole territory on the
left side of that river from its source to its month ;
and hence it has an extent of little less than 700
miles both in length and breadth. The mountain
ranges of Gaul which are lofty enough to deserve the
name are the following : — 1. Gehenna^ the Cevennes,
stretching N.N.E. from the Pyrenees ; 2. An ex-
tinct volcanic group in Auvergne {Arv€Tn%)j the
highest points of which are the Cental, Mont Dor,*
and Puy-de D6me ;* 3. Vogesus^ the V6ges, running
parallel with the Rhine from B4le to Coblentz ; 4.
e/wm, which formed the boundary between the JSel-
vetiiKnA. Sequdni; and, 5. AU that portion of the Al-
pine range, which lies to the W. and S. of the Upper
Rhine, and sends the waters produced in its sum-

^ It is a common error to call this Peak Mont d'Or, as if it
had something to do with gold. The name of the Mountain is
Dor, and it gives origin to a rirer of the same name, which being
joined by one of a similar kind called the Dogne, the united stream,
under the name of Dordogne, pours its waters into the Garonne.

> It was by ascending the Puy de Dome, barometer in hand,
that Pascal first demonstrated by experiment the principle of that
instrument.

BIVEB-BAfllNS OP ANCIENT GAUL. 11

mits and slopes, either into the Rhine or into the
Rhone.*

The superficial extent of Ancient Gaul is so mnch
larger than that of Modem France as to comprise,
besides it, the kingdom of Belgium, the greater
part of Switzerland, and a considerable portion of
Prussia and Bavaria, Qallia AntiquAj then,
may be regarded as composed of six large Basins,
{i.e. tracts of land penetrated throughout bj a main
river and its tributaries) ; and these basins are sepa-
rated from each other, either by the mountains above
enumerated, or by high grounds (called doa in French
from the Latin dorsum) ^ which serve equally well
the purposes of water-»h^. The six Basins are those
of the Rhone, the Gaeonne, the Loibe, the Seine,
the Meuse, and the Rhine. The basins of these
rivers account for the whole superficial contents of
Gallia Transalptnay except the country watered by
the Samdra (Somme) and Scaldis (Scheld) which
are little more than ^riviferesdec6te.' We have then,

1. The Basin of Bhodanus, the Rhone. This
river, springing from the side of St. Gothard, makes
its way between two lofty ranges of the Alps through
the Valais, where it passes the city of the Sedunij
now SittcA or Sion, and OctoduiruSj Martigny. Then,
forcing its way through the gorge of St. Maurice, it
expands into Lacus LemanuSy and, having deposited

* In the pronimciation of French words, it is to be obseryed,
1. that n final has a nasal sounds somewhat like our ng ; 2. that #
final is not sounded except before a vowel in the next word; 3. that
e final, and e before f final, unless they have an accent, either
grave \ acute \ or circumflex % are faintly and to an English ear
imperceptibly pronounced ; and 4. that g soft and j are pronoun-
ced zh.

12 RIVEE-BASINS OP ANCIENT GAUL.

there the soil of the melted glaciers, it re-appears at
the city of Geneva in the form of a majestic
river of a deep transparent blue. In pursuing its
course westward, it disappears at a place called La
perte du RhJone^ and flows under ground for a quarter
of a mile. Meeting at last with the obstruction
of the Cevennes, it turns abruptly to the South.
At the angle, it is joined from the North by Arar^
the Saone, which Caesar describes as flowing incre-
dibili Imitate,^ On this tributary stood OaMllonumy
now Ch^lons-sur-Saone, and Mattsco^ now Mdcon^
both towns of the Aedui :* and on its feeder, Dvbisj
(Doubs) was Vesontioy now Besan9on. At the point
of junction of the Avar and Rhodanusj stood Lugdvr-
numj which gave name to the Augustan division of
Gaul, Lugdunmsia. This city, under the modem
name of Lyons, is famed, among other things, for
its silk manufactures, and has long ranked next to
Paris in importance and population. From Lyons,
the Ehone continues its rapid course directly South,
passing various towns, among which may be men-
tioned, Avenioy Avignon, at the junction of Druen-
tia, the Durance ;* and Areldte (Aries), where the

* Quorum serpit Arar per rura, pigerrimus amnis. —

SiL. It. XV. 501.

"^ — RhodanuB raptum velocibus undis

In mare fert Ararim. — LncAif . i. 433.
^ Cabilloni et Matiscone, in Aeduis^ ad Ararim. —

Caes. Bell. Gall. yii.
' Turbidus hie tnmcis saxisque Druentia laetum

Ductoiifl yafitavit iter. Namque Alpibus ortus,

ATulcsas omos et adesi fragmina montis

Cum sonitu volvens, fertur latrantibus undis

Ac yada translato mutat fallada cursu,

Non pediti fidus^ patnlis non puppibns aequus. — Sil. It. hi. 468.

BIVER-BASINS OP ANCIENT GAUL. 13

river separates into two branches, enclosing a Delta
of rich land, called Camargue, (perhaps a corruption
of Ccdi Mar it Ager) .

2. The Basin of Qabumna^ -the Garonne, a riyer
which rises in the Pyrenees, and flows N. W. into
the ^nm Cantabricusy the Bay of Biscay. This
basin is bounded by the Pyrenees, the Cevennes,
the mountains of Auvergne, and by the doa or high
ground that extends thence to the sea. Within these
limits, it includes the minor basin of AtUniSy (the
Adour). In descending the Garumna, we find To^$a,
Toulouse f and farther down, on the left bank of the
river, stood Burdigahy the modem Bordeaux, so well
known for its commerce and its claret (vin de Bor-
deaux) . It was the birth-place of the poet Ausonius.
Lower down, the Garonne receives the Dordogne,
and widens into an estuary which is called La
Gironde.

3. The Basin of Ligeb^ the Loire. The Loire
rises in the Cevennes, flows first northward, then
westward, and falls into the Atlantic after a course
of 500 miles. Among the Towns on its banks
most worthy of mention was Qenabunij which
owes its modem name of Orleans to the people
Aurelianiy whose capital it was. The town has

* Toulouse has been a seat of learning, both in ancient and in
modem times. Martial (ix. 160) gives it the epithet, Palladia,
as well for that reason as for its temple of Minerva ; and it will be
for ever memorable as the scene of the final action and crown-
ing victory of that series of Peninsular campaigns, which, taken
in connection with the battle of Assaye which preceded them, and
that of Waterloo which came after, have for ever fixed the fame
of Wellington as the greatest of all commanders of armies.

14 RIVER-BASINS OP ANCIENT GAUL.

been made famous in modem times by the stoiy of
the Maid of Orleans, and by its giving title to the
first prince of the blood under the old monarchy of
France. Farther down the Loire, were the Turmes
and Andes v. Andegdvi^ tribes which give the mo-
dem names Tours, Angers, and Ahjou, Near the
embouchure of the Loire dwelt the tribe Namnetesy
whence the name of the modem city of Nantz (in
French, Nantes). The revocation of the edict of
Henri Quatre, and the consequent influx of so many
French Protestants into Britain, made Nantz be
adopted, spelt, and pronounced, as an English word.
On the Arroux a tributary of the Loire, Btbracte v.
Auguatodunum^ Autun, capital of the Aedui.

4. The Basin of Sequana^ the Seine. This
river rises in the Table-land of the Gallic tribe
Lingeries now called the Plateau de Langres, and,
soon after its junction with Matrona (the Mame), en-
closes an islet called Lutetia Parmorurrij now in the
very centre of the capital of France. Between Paris
and the sea is Rouen (RotomSgus) ^ birth-place of
the great Comeille. Near the source was AUsiaj
taken by Caesar afl«r a long siege, which he de-
scribes minutely in the 7th book of his Commen-
taries.'^

The comparatively small and very flat Basin of
Samdraj the Somme, was the seat of the tribe Am-
hianiy whose chief place was Samarohrivaj of which
mention occurs in Caesar and Cicero, as well as in

^ Circa Alesiain tantae res gestae quantajs audere^ vix homiiiiSy
perficere, paene nullius nisi dei fuerit. — Vell. Patbeculi. ii. 47*

RIVER-BASINS OP ANCIENT QAUL. 16

Ptolemy ; but the name of the people survives only
in that of the modem city Amiens.

The " lazy Scheld" presents no object of interest
to the student of the classics.

5. We next arrive at the Basin of the MoSAy (in
Dutch, Maas or Maes, — in French, Meuse,) on which,
aswe descend the river, we come successively to Li^ge,
Namur, and Maestricht(-Mb«ae TrajectuSy^ places of
little note in ancient times, but whose names occur
ofiien in the history of modem wars.

6. The Basin of ReenuSj the Rhine, of which
the left side only is Gallic. The Rhine rises in the
central Alps, and is enclosed in its early course be-
tween Alpine ranges, until it expands into Lacua
BriganMrma v. Ven^tuSyihe lake of Constance. Thence
it flows westward (forming at Schaff hausen the most
noted waterfall in Europe and passing Augusta
Bauracarum)j till it reaches Basilta (Basel or Bdle).
Meeting there with an obstraction in the high ground
between Jura and the Vdges, it turns abruptly to the
North. In the subsequent part of its course, it passes
successively the walls, 1. of Jfcgrt^wfioct^m the Capital of
Germania Superior ^ now Mainz in Grerman, Mayence
in French: 2. of (7ow/?t«enfe«,corruptedintothemodem
Coblentz, at the coiiiuence of the Rhine and MosUla
vel Mosella (Mosel or Moselle) ; and 3. of Colonia
AgrippmoLy capital of Qermania Inferior yUGW Coin or
Cologne, withitsfamed Cathedral. Upon one filament
of that network of ditches, canals, and inlets of the
sea in which the Meuse and Rhine lose themselves
in the latter part of their course, stands the modem
city of Rotterdam, the birth-place of Erasmus, to

16 TOWNS AND ISLANDS ON THE COAST.

whom his fellow-citizens have erected a bronze sta-
tue on one of the bridges.

Having explored the Basins of Ancient Gaul, let
us now survey the Line of Coast.

In the English Channel, on the N. W. coast of
Gaul, over against Britain, are Pcyrtus ItiuSy whence
Caesar first set sail for Britain, and the three islands,
now belonging to Great Britain, Ridunay Aldemey,
Samiay Guernsey, and Caemrea^ Jersey : facing the
Atlantic, is Partus BrivdteSj the Harbour of Brest : at
the mouth of the Adour, Lapurdmny Bayonne.

On the Southern or Mediterranean coast, was
Narbo MartivSy Narbonne, which gave name to one
of the divisions of Gaul, Narhonenais. Ten leagues
East of the Ehone mouth, was Maasiliay (Marseilles),
said to have been founded at a very remote period by a
colonjfromPhocaeaj acity on the coast of Asia Minor.
As a dependency of Rome, Massilia rose to great pros-
perity and refinement. Tacitus, speaking of it as
the place of Agricola's education, calls it "locus
Graeca comitate et provinciali parsimonia mistus ac
bene compositus;" and Strabo pronounces it a Tcotieu-
Tijptov to the barbarians : Telo Martivsy Toulon,
is the great naval station of the French on the Medi-
terranean, as Brest is on the Atlantic. Off Toulon
are the StoeclMes inmlaey the Isles d'Hiferes: Forum
Juluy or Cohnia Forojultensis, birth-place of Agri-
cola, now Frejus, where Napoleon landed on his es-
cape from Elba : Nicaea, the last Gallic city towards
Italy, now Nice.

17

ANCIENT DIVISIONS AND TRIBES OF QAUL.

At the time of Caesar's invasion^ there was
already in (Jaul a Provincia Bomana lying be-
tween the Cevennes and the Alps. The rest of
Gaol is described by him as divided into three parts,
according as it was inhabited by the AguUdni in the
South; BdgcR in the North, and CelkB in the middle.
But the truth is, that Oallia Gomata (as all beyond
the Roman Province was then called) was occupied
by numerous independent tribes or peoples, gene-
rally hostile to each other. Some of these have
been abready named — ^the LtngSnes and Parisii in
the basin of the Seine, the Aureliani and Namnetes
in that of the Loire, and the Seduni in the Yalais.
A few shall be now added as occurring most fre-
quently in Caesar's narrative of his campaigns in
Ganl ; and the locality of each tribe named will be
indicated by the river-basin in which they dwelt.

The JEdui (^ clarissimi Celtarum,') occupied the
territory between the Loire and the Saone ; on a
tributary of the former was BUyracUj their capital,
subsequently called Aiiguatodunvm^ which, by suc-
cessive accommodations to the genius of the French
language, appears in the modem form of Autun*
The Sequdni dwelt in the upper part of the basin
of the Saone, and the whole of that of its feeder
DmJw, the Doubs, a river which winds round their
chief city Vesantio (Besan9on.) Li the Basin
of the Seine, solith side, lived the tribe Camutes;
near their chief city Autricum (Chartres), waa

18 TRIBES OF ANCIENT GAVL.

the residence of the Arch-druid of Gaul.® The AUo-
brSffes dwelt between the Rhone and its left-hand
tributary Isdray the Isfere. The Trev^vel Tremri
occupied the space between the Meuse and the Ehine,
and the lower basin of the Moselle. Their chief
city was that now called from the name of the tribe,
in German, Trier, in French, Trfeves. Through
their country ran the extensive Silva Arduenna, the
Forest of Ardenne. To the west of the Tremri, in
the basin of SaitSy the Sambre, and the upper course
of the Scheld, dwelt the Nerviij a gaUant people of
German extraction, who fought a great battle against
Caesar ; and, but for his own prowess and presence
of mind, he would have lost it. Hence one of the
proudest recollections of his life was

** That day he oyercame the Nerrii."*
The battle was fought on the banks of the same
river (the Sambre, a tributary of the Moselle) along
which Napoleon marched his army to the field of

" The foUowing allusion to the rites and doctrines of the DrddB,
at one time so powerful a priesthood in Gaul and Britain, is worth
quoting : —
Soils n6sse Deos et coeli numina vohis,
Aut solis nesdre, datum ; nemora alta remotia
Incolitis lucis ; vohis auctorihus, umbrae
Non tadtas Erebi sedes Ditisque profundi
Pallida regna petunt : regit idem spiritus artua
Orbe alio ; longae (canitis si cognita) vitae
Mors media est. Certe, populi quos despicit Arctos
Felices errore suo, quos ille timorum
Maximus baud urget lethi metus ; inde mendi
In fermm mens prona yiris, animaeque capacea
Mortis ; et ignavum reditnrae paroere Titac^— Lucax. i. 452.
* Shaksp. JnL Caes. Act in. Sc 2. See Bell. Qall. B. n. c. 15, &e.

EPOCHS AND ANTIQUITIES. 19

Waterloo. Still farther West, on the Strait of
Dover and Calais, were the people commemorated
by Virgil in the line,

^ Extremique hominum Morini^ Rhexmsqae bicornii.'* —

Aen. Tin. 727.

HiSTOBicAL Epochs. — ^ifcw^tYiiawasfoimdedbythe
inhabitants of PAocflBa, as formerly mentioned, about
600 years before Christ ; an event nearly cotem-
porary with the invasion of Italy by the Ganls
under Bellovesns, Livy, v. 34. The MasailienseSy
being hard pressed by the neighbouring tribes, called
in the Eomans, (A. u. 630, B. c. 122,) who first aa-
sisted and then subdued them. Caesar invaded
Gaul 58 years B. c, and reduced the whole country
to the form of a Eoman province : and so it remained
till the final overthrow of Syagrius at Soissons
(a. d.486) byClovis, Kingof the Franks, the Founder
of the French monarchy. His descendants, called
the Merovingian race, continued on the tbrone of
France till Pepin son of Charles Martel, the first of
the Carlovingian dynasty, was crowned at Soissons,
A. D. 752. His son Charlemagne was crowned
Emperor of the West, A. D. 800. The Carlovin-
gian race was excluded from the throne by Hugues
Capet, A. D. 987 ; and from this prince the late royal
fiamily of France was descended.

Antiquities. — ^At Nemausics, Ntmes, in the Basin
of the Rhone, right side, are found an Amphitheatre,
almost entire, called Argues ; a temple of Diana, and
another called Maison Carrfe : N. of the town, an
Aqueduct, having three tiers of arches, now called

20 REMAINS OF ANTIQUITY.

Pont du Gard, 184 £ high, and 775 long. It
was erectedbj the Eomans, to convey the water of the
small river (Euvre across the deep-seated Gardon,
for the supply of the city of Nemausua : — At Aries,
the remains of an amphitheatre ; two temples ; a
trimnphal arch ; a collection of urns, lacrymatories,
&c., found chiefly in a burying-ground, known of
old by the name of My sit Campiy and still called
Eliscamp : — AxArauaio (Orange) , a triumphal arch of
Marius : — ^At Frejus, an amphitheatre and aqueduct:
— ^At Lyons, inter alia^ in the vestibule of the Hotel-
de-Ville, the speech of the Emperor Claudius in
behalf of the Lugduriemea engraved on bronze : — ^in
the Church of St. Martin, the four pillars which sup-
ported an altar erected in honour of Augustas at
the confluence of the Khone and Saone by sixty
Gallic tribes, to which Juvenal alludes, i. 44. —
Alongside of the Rhone are vestiges of the Fossa
Mariaruiy executed by Marius for the convenience of
of water-carriage to the Massilienses. At Poictiers
fJPu^SnesJy Saintes fSantSnesJy and Lillebonne (Ju-
ItobSnaJy are remains of amphitheatres, aqueducts, &c.

Before quitting the Ehine, the left or Gallic
side only of which we have yet spoken of, we shall
direct our attention to the r^ht side of the great
basinof that river.

QERMANIA. 21

ra.

Ceossing the Rhine— say at Ccnflueniea (Co-
blentz), we find ourselves in the coontijp called by the
ancients

QERMANIA,

A wordj which, in its widest acceptation, may be
said to comprehend the whole territory enclosed
by the Upper Danube, the Rhine, the Bidtic, (Mare
Suemcum vel Sinus Codanusjj and the Vistula ; a
portion of the earth's snrfiuse wholly contained with-
in the parallels of 46° and 55° of North Lat., and
the lines 5° and 22° E. Long., and embracing, be-
sides the right bank of the Rhine, the entire river-
basins of Amisiaj the Ems, Visurgisj the Weser,
Albisj the Elbe, Viadrusj the Oder, and the left
bank of the VisWla.

Among the right hand German tributaries of the
Bhine, the most remarkable are Moenus^ the Mayne,
Nicer J the Necker, and Lupia^ the Lippe.

GebmaniAj as it was known to the Romans, (for
of Germany the Greeks in the palmy days of their
history knew nothing, and even Strabo's accountof it,
in the reign of Augustus and Tiberius, is extremely
meagre) was occupied, like Gaul, by a great number
of separate, independent, and generally hostile tribes,
who led a savage and roving life in a coimtry covered
with mountains and interminable forests, and shewed
little or no inclination to congregate into towns or

22 GERMANIC TRIBES.

cities.* The Silva Hercynia is described by Caesar
aa more than sixty days' journey in lengthy and nine
in breadth.

The German tribes that make any figure in his-
tory, and such alone are worth recording here,
were the following : — The Gherusciy a brave peo-
ple, dwelling in the basin of the Visurgis*
Led on by the famous Arminius, they made head
against a Eoman army of three legions under Qoin-
tilius Varus, and not only defeated but utterly de-
stroyed it ; — ^an event which is said to have deeply
a£fected Augustus. Some years after, however, Ger-
manicus marching his army over the very field of
battle where the bones of Varus and his army were
whitening, encoimtered Arminius in a plain called
Idiataviausy and gained a complete victory.* Farther
North were the SaxSnes^ Anglij and Chersoneiui
Ombrica (Jutland). The Cimlri were a people
whom Tacitus describes, in allusion to their invasion
of Italy, as ^parva nunc civitas, sed gloria ingens.' In
the basin of the Lupia were the Sicawbriy subdued
by Augustus, and transferred to a settlement in
Gaul.* The warlike nation of the Suevi^ and, between
the Ehine and the Weser, the ChaM v, Cattij and
Chauci are often mentioned by Caesar and Tacitus.

^ NuUaB Germaiioroxn populis urbes habitari satis notam est ;
ne pad quidem inter se junctas sedes. Colunt discreti ao direnii
nt fans, ut campus, ut nemus placuit — Tac. Germ, c 16.
Quis, Germania qnos horrida partorit
Fetus, incolmni Caesare I Quis ferae

Bellum curet Iberiae 1— Hob. iv. 5. 26.
• Te oaede gaudentes Sicambri

Compodtis Tenerantnr armis.— Hob. Od. it. 1 4. 51.
♦ Tag. Akn. i. 61, &c.

QEBMANIO TRIBES. 23

It is a singular &ct that the word OebmaniAj ap-
plied by the Romans to the entire territory inhabited
by these and numerous other tribes, and adopted into
our English tongue, never was the designation of the
country, either among the natives or in the other
languages of Europe. The French call the country
Allemagne, a name derived from a people who first
appear in history at the beginning of the 3d cen-
toiy of the Christian era, under the title of AUemanniy
and occupying the country about the sources of the
Danube. They seem to have been a league formed
of various tribes, as the word implies, (all-mann),
united by the common bond of a desire to throw off
the Roman yoke. In this attempt they pushed
their conquests as far as the Rhine, and established
themselves in Alsace, Suabia, and part of Switzer-
land, and this country was known in mediseval times
hj the name of AUemanma. But from this word
the Germans derive no appellation either for them-
selves or their native country. Neither did they
ever call themselves Q&rmanij or their country (?er-
mania. Oer-mann (war-man) was a term applied
to the invaders of their country. Their own patrial
names are Teutsch or Deutsch and Teutschland,
which are obviously identical with the TeiMnes of
antiquity, that northern people, who, in conjunction
with the Cimlri^ made so formidable an inroad into
Italy, that the whole power of Rome, under such
conmianders as Marius and Oatulus, was required
to resist and to crush them.*

* Vid« D^Anrille, Etati form^ en Europe, p. 11, &c

24 ITALIA.

IV.

ITALIA {Graece etpoetice HEBPERUy Oenotru^
AusoNUj 8ATUBNIA TEiLUs)^ including Gallu
CiaALPjNA and Magna Obaeoia!^

Salye, magna parens frogmn, Satnmia Tellns,
Magna yirihn ! Tibi res antiquae laudis et artb
Ingredior. — ^Yibo. Gkobo. n. 173.

Italia^ in the widest acceptation of the word, in
which, however, it was not used till the days of Im-
perial Eome, comprehended the whole of iJbat terri-
tory which is fenced off from the rest of Europe by
the mountain-barrier of the Alps, and surrounded on
all other sides by the sea. It extends 700 miles in
length, and of various breadth, between the parallels
of ZT and 47° N. Lat, and the lines of T and 19^
E. Long,

Italy, when contemplated under its physical as-
pects, presents itself as composed of two portions

* The following are hints for the correct prpnondation of
Italian names : — t final is sounded, and the sound is that of the
English a in tahle ; i neyer sounded like the English iy hut like u ;
a has the sound of the English a in father ; « of the English oo in
soothe ; c soft hefore t and % is sounded like o& in e&eny ; M in
Italian always like our h ; g^ both hard and soft, is sounded
like our own, hut before m and I its only effect is to give the t(m
vnowiXU to the snooeeding syllables, i. 0. the sound we haye in mi-
fiioB and million ; g followed by A before t and i, is sounded hard,
as in ^Te ; z and tat hare generaUy the sound of Ct, but the smgle z
is ocearionally sounded Uke dz ; w before t and i sounds like our M.

ITALIA.. 25

nearly equal in extent, but widely different in natu-
ral character. The one is the Peninsula of lialioL
Propria^ surrounded by the waters of the Mediter-
ranean and Adriatic on all sides, except where a
straight line drawn over land, and connecting the
little streams Mcuyra and Bubicon in Lat. 44° forms
the isthmus. The other main portion of Italian soil
is the great Basin of Padua j called also by the poets
UriddnitSj the Po. Between these two territories the
contrast is striking. In the Northern division,
throughout its whole length, we find a river flowing
in the lowest level between thf^ Alpine and Apen-
nine heights which are its boundaries. In the
southern or Peninsular portion, the reverse is the
case. The central line of the peninsula is not, as in
northern Italy, the lowest, but the most elevated
part, being in fact the crest of the lofty and con-
tinuous chain of the Apennines ; while the boun-
dary line on both sides is the lowest of all levels —
the sea. The one region is penetrated by a single
river, swollen by the contributions of iimumerable
streams from the opposite sides of the basin.
These find their way to the great receptacle, the Po,
which absorbs them all, and pours their united
waters into the Adriatic. The Peninsula, on the
other hand, has abundance of streams, but they are
all, even the Tiber, of comparatively short course,
having each its own Utile basin and lateral feeders,
and falling directly and independently into the sea.
To begin with the Northern section. The huge
Basin of the Po was, during the Kepublican times,
no part of Italy, but known to the Eomans as Gal-

26 THE PO AND ITS TBIBUTARIES.

LiA G18ALPINA KxALiauRiA. If we trace the Pa-
DUS from its source in Mons Vesulm (Monte Viso)
to its embouchure, we shall find on the river itself,
AUffusta Taurinorunij taken by Hannibal on his de-
scent from the Alps, now Turin (Torino) capital
of the kingdom of Sardinia ; Placmtiaj a Soman
colony, now Piacenza ; and Cremdnay whose vici-
nity to Mantua is lamented by Virgil,^ and regard-
ing which, in modern times, there is nothing more
memorable than the excellence of the violins manu-
fjBWJtured there.

On the Nor^ side of the basin of the Po, which,
from its position in regard to Eome, was called Gal-
lia Transpadanay we find the river joined by nume-
rous streams from the Alps, among which the most
notable are, 1. and 2. the Durta mirwrj on which
Segusioj Susa ; and JDuria major ^ on which Augusta
Praetortaj Aosta, and Eporediaj Ivrea : 3. The Seas-
tteSj near which was Vercellaey where Marius defeat-
ed the Oimbri: 4. Tidinus (Tessino), (issuing from
Lake FerJaniw, Maggiore,) on the banks of which
Hannibal first defeated the Bomans in a skirmish of
cavalry ; 5. Addua (the Adda), issuing from Lake
Larms? (Lago di Como), W. of which was Medio*
lanurriy MiLAN : and 6. Minciusj issuing from Lake
BenoLcua (Lago di Garda), and investing Mantua^ a

1 Mantua vae miserae nimium vicina Cremonae ! —

. ViRG. Eel. IX. 28.
« i " te, Lari maxime, teque

FluctibuB et fremitu assnrgens, Benaoe, marinow —

ViRQ. G. II. 160.

UmbroelL vestit qua littus olivA

Larius, et dolci mentitur Nereafluctu. — Claud. Bell. Gret 319.

THE BASIN OP THE PO. 27

cily wtiich Silins Italicns calls musarum domua^ as
being the birth-place of Virgil, though it is believed
that the Poet was bom at Andes j a neighbouring vil-
lage. At the southern extremitj of Lake Bendem
was the Peninsula Sirmioj^ the residence of the poet
Catullus. AthSstSy a river which the Germans call
Etsch, and the French Adige,* may be said to be-
long to the basin of the Po, though it falls direct
into the Adriatic. On this river are the towns of
Tridentumy Trent, and Vermay^ birth-place of Ca-
tullus, which retains its ancient name, with a Boman
Amphitheatre in tolerable preservation. To the
North of Verona were the Collea JSnganeiy famed
for wool. Among these hills are seven villages,
called Sette Communis inhabited by a hardy race of
men, who speak a dialect of old Saxon, and shew
by Iheir light hair and blue eyes that they are of a
different race from the modem Italian. There seem
to be grounds for believing that they are a remnant
of the vast assemblage of CirrJyri and TeutoneSj who
took refdge in these hiUs after their total defeat by
Marius.t Farther along is a rivi^e de c&tSy Me-
daScuSy Bacchilione, on which is Pototnwwi, birth-
place of Livy, now Padua.

s Penimwilanim, Sirmio, insnlammque Ocelle, &c. —

Catull. xxxt.

* These modem names are changes, not on Ath^tit, for that
wonld contradict all the analogies of deriyation, hut on the word
Atdgit, the ancient name of a tributary so considerable in size as
to have been at one time looked upon as the main stream.

^ Verona Athesi circumflua. — Sil. It. yiii. 597.

t Vid. Labmde, Voyage en Italic, VoL ix. p. 89, 12mo. Ed.
Paris, 1786.

28 RIVEBS AND BASINS

The South side of the Po basin, as being that
nearest to Borne, was called Gallia Oispqdana. It
is permeated by numerous streams from the Apen-
nines, the most memorable of which are the 2VeJw,
on whose banks the Bomans sustained a second and
more severe defeat from Hannibal; and BhemiSj
Beno, on which was .Rmonia,* ^Bologna. In an
island on this ^ little Bhine/ the second triumvirate,
Antony, Lepidus, and Augustus, met to portion
out among them the Boman world.

In the Peninsula of Italia Propria^ the only
rivers of considerable length are, the Amua^ Ttberis,
Ltrt8y Vtdturmigy all falling into the Mare Injerum
V. Etrtiscum ; and the Aufidtis and AtemtiSy which
flow into the Mare Superum v. Adriaiicumy v.
Hadriay the Gulf of Venice.

1. In the basin of Amus (Valdamo and Vallom-
brosa*), were, on the river itself, Florentta^ now Flo-
rence (Ital. Fibenze)^ capital of Tuscany, and, near
the mouth, Piaae (Pisa). Three miles N. E. from
Florence, FcBsulaej where Galileo made his obser-
vations,^ and ftirther north, PhtoTta^ where Catiline
was defeated and slain.

- parvique Bononia Eheni. — Sil. tiii. 601.

Thick M autumnal leaves that strew the brooks

In Vallomhrosa, where the Etmiian shades,

High OYer-arched embower.^— Milt. Par. L. i. 302.

the moon whose orb

Thio* optic glass the Tuscan artist yiew'd

At evening from the top of Fesol^,

Or in Valdamo, to descry new lands,

Rivers, or mountains, in her spotty globe.— Ib. 297.

OP ITALY PBOPER. 29

2. In the basin of 2Y6m!?, the Tiber (in Italian,
Tevere), were, 1st, on the river itself, Penwta, near
Locus TrasjprCenus^ (now the Lake of Perugia),
where, for the third time, Hannibal routed the Eo-
man axmy under Flaminius ; Fidenae^ beyond Mom
Sacer, between the Tiber and Anio : BomAj JPrin-
cepa Urhivm y® and at the mouth, Ostiaj the Port of
Rome : 2d, on the right side of the basin of the Ti-
ber, Glusiumj the city of Porsenna, upon the tri-
butary Clanis ; and on the left side TQmr (Tivoli)
on the Anio (Teverone). At Tibur, Maecenas had
a villa, in which Horace, (whose Sabine farm lay
at no great distance on the Digentia^ a feeder of the
Anio) J was a frequent guest.®

3. In the basin of Lirisi^^ (Liri at first, and then
Garigliano) were, on the left side, Arplnumy birth-
place of Marius and Cicero, the famous Ihio Arpi-
ndtes ; Aqulnum^ birth-place of Juvenal; at the

* Polybius makes it T^a^iftUn XtfAvti, — Strabo, Q^^Mtfjtim.
^ ilia inclyta Roma

Imperiom tenis^ animos aequabit Olympo^

Septemque una sibi mnro circumdabit arces ;

Felix prole yirum. — Ask. yi. 781.

Urbi,

Qua nihil in tenia complectitur altius aether ;

Q^nae septem scopnHs zonae imitator CHympi,

Armoram Legomque parens ; quae fdndit in omnes

Imperium, primique dedit cunabula Juris.

Haec est^ exigois quae finibus orta tetendit

In geminos axesi parv&que a sede profectas

Dispenit cum sole manus, &c.— Claud, ii. Cons. Stil. 130.
^ Tibur, Argeo pontum colono

Sit meae sedes utinam senectae^— Hob. Od. ij. 6.

10 rura quae Liris quietA

Mordet aqu&, tacitumus amnis. — HoR. Od. i. 31. 7.

30 BIVERS AND BASINS OF ITALY PROPER.

mouth, near the Marshes where Marius took refuge,
Mtntumae}^ On the right side, the Liris was joined
by the Ftbr^its. On the banks of the latter, and on
the little island at the junction which belonged to
Cicero, was held the dialogue De Legibus, see b. ii^
c. 1-3.

4. In the basin of the VuUumu8y^ on the left side
of the river, stood the following towns : — AUtfaej
famed for its pottery ;^' (AlUfana sc. pocula, had a
sound to Eoman ears like Wedgwood-ware, or Coal-
brook-dale to ours) ; Gapua^ chief city of the Cam-
pdnij and the rival of Eome itself (hence called
* altera Eoma') till towards the close of the 2d Punic
war, when, having sided with Hannibal, it fell with
his falling fortunes ; Vervdjrum^ famed for its olives,
Galea f-tumjj for its vines ; ( Venajranvmj sc. oleum,
and Galenumy sc. vinum, signified oil and wine of
the first quality). Beneventumy a town of Samnium on
the Via Appiaj stood at the point of junction of Sa-
Idtus and Calory whose united stream falls into the
VuUumtis. On that river itself, stood Gasilinum
(on the site of the modem Capua), which gained
credit with the Romans by its long and obstinate
resistance to Hannibal, (Liv. B. xxii. ch. 15). Be-
tween Beneventum and Gapuij \xjFurca^ Gavdtnaej

u ExOiuxn et career, Mintumammque paludes,
£t mendicatuB victa Carthagine pania,
Hinc (i. e. axnbitione) caosas habu^. — Juy. x. 276.
^' The following conundrum on the Vul-tor-nns, is modem :—
Totum sume, fluit ; capnt anfer, splendet in amua ;
Caudam deme, volat ; Tusoera tolle, dolet
^' InTertont AlHfania Tinaria tota. — Hoe. Sat. ii. 8. 89.

TOWNS ON THE COAST. 31

a defile where a Boman army was hemmed in by
the Samnites, and forced to pass mider the yoke.*

5. In the basin of the Auftdusj not fer from the
right bank of the river, were Canvsium and Cannae;
near the latter was gained the last and greatest of
Hamiibal's victories ;" and to Oammumj the poor
remains of the Boman army retreated after the disas-
trous battle. Higher up the valley, at the foot of
Mt VultuTj was Venimay birth-place of Horace, on
the debateable land between Apulia and Lugania;
hence Horace speaks of himself as " Lucanus an Ap-
pulus anceps." Here also, not at Horace's farm,
was the Fons Bandusiae}^

6. In the basin of the AtemuSj on the river itself,
was Amttemumy birth-place of Sallust the historian,
and Corfiniumj the rallying point of the League
against Rome in the Social War. At some distance
south from the bend of the river, stood SulmOj Sul-
mona, a town of the Peligni^ birth-place of Ovid."

• Vide Lit. Book ix. ch. 1-12.

^* Finem animae quae res humanas miscuit oliniy
Non gladii non saxa dabimt nee tela, sed iUe
Cannarum vindex, ac tanti sangoinis ultor— •
Annulus. — Juv. x. 163.

^' fons Bandufliae splendidior yitro.

Fies nobiliom ta quoque fontium.
Me dicente cavifl impodtam ilicem
Saxis unde loquacea
Lymphae desitiunt tuae.— Od. hi. 13, 1.
u Sulmo mihi patria est, gelidis uberrlmus imdls* —

Ot. Tb. III. 10, 8.
Mantua Virgilio gaudet, Verona Catollo :
Pefignae diear gloria gentis ego :

32 TOWNS ON THE COAST.

To the geographical position of other towns and
localities not connected with the six main riyers a due
will be found if we follow the line of coast, with
special reference at the same time to the principal
subdivisions or provinces of Italia Antiqua,
These provinces were either Maritime or Inland. Of
the former class, six bordered on the Mediterranean,
viz.: — LiauBiAy EmuBiAy Latium^ Campanu^
LuCANiA^ and the Bbutu ; and five on the Adriatic,
viz.: — ApuLiAy including Japygia^ Dauniay and
Messapia; PiCENUM^ FBENTANiy UmbbiAj Oallia
Cispadana and Transpaddnay the latter including
Venetm, Gamiay and Istrta. The Inland Provinces
were, SamniuMj and the highland districts of the
MABSiy PeliqnIj and Sabinl Let us travel along
the coast of the maritime provinces in the order just
enumerated.

1. On the coast oi LwubiAj proceeding eastward
from the small river Varvs^'^ which flows from Alpea
MaritimaSy we find, at the head of the bay called
Sinus LtgtisttcuSy Genuaj a city more famous in
history under its modernized form of Genoa.

2. Crossing the Macraj we enter Etbubia^ and
arrive first at the town of Lunay and its harbour
Partus Lunensis (Gulf of Spezzia), than which.

Atque aliquis, speetaiis hospes SulmoniB aqaoei

Moenia qua campi jiigera paaca tenent,
^ Quae tantum/' dicet, ^ potuistis ferre poetam^

Quantulacunque estis, tos ego magna tooo."

Ov. Am. III. 15, 7.
" Finia et Hespbriab (i.e. ItaUae), promoto limite. Varus.—

LUCAK.

TOWNS ON THE COAST OF ITALY. 33

Lucan declares, — ' non est spatiosior alter, Innume-
ras cepisse rates et claudere pontum.' Not far off
are the Quarries of Carrara, which still supply
statuary marble to Europe. As we approach the
mouth of the Tiber, we come upon the ancient
Agylla^^ subsequently called Gaere^ a town reward-
ed with the honorary freedom of the city, for its
fidelity to Rome at the time of the Gallic Invasion.
3. On the coast of Latium^ the towns we meet
with on crossing the Tiber, are Laurentum^ the city
of King Latinus, Lavinium^^ and Antium^ the capi-
tal of the Volsci. Over the Antidtes the Romans
gained their first victory at sea, in memory of which
they fixed the beaks (rostra) of the ships they had
captured in front of the tribune from which the ora-
tors harangued the people. Antium was famed in
Horace's time for a Temple of Fortune.^® Eight m.
inland was Ardea^ the city of the Rutuli and of
Tumus, and CorioU the taking of which gained
for Gains Marcius the title of Coriolanus. Farther
along the coast were Paludes Pomptinae^ the Pontine
Marshes, a tract of country where the malarta, so
prevalent in many parts of Italy, is peculiarly fatal ;
beyond is Anamr^^ v. Terrcicina, Next come the
town and promontory of Gtrceii] the town Amyclae;
the Town, Promontory, and Harbour of Cajeta

■ sazo incolitur fandata retasto

Urbis Agyllinae sedes ; nbi Lydia quondam

Gens, bello praeclara, jugis insedit Etniscis. — Aen. viil. 478.
" cemes nrbem, et promiasa Layini

Moenia. — Aen. i. 258.
* diva gratum quae regis Antium. — Hoe. Od. i. 35.
" Impositum saxis late candeniibus Anxur. — Hor. Sat. i. 5-26.

D

34 TOWNS ON THE COAST OF ITALY.

which took that name, according to Virgil, from the
nurse of Aeneas ;^ near it was Cicero's Formianum,
where he was basely murdered by order of Mark
Antony. — Here commences, and is continued into
Campania, the district in which the choicest wines of
ancient Italy were produced, the ^ Formiani CoUes^
Mons MassicuSj^^ the ager Fahmus^^ CaecubvSy Ga-
lenvs^ Setlnus,^

^ Tu qnoqne littoribus nostris, AenSa nutrix,

Aetemam moriens fiunain, CajSta, dedisti. — Aen. tii. 1.

** Baechi Blassicus humor.— Virq. G. ii. 148.

Quocimque lectom nomine Maaacum
Serras, moveri digna bono die,
Descende (Amphora !), Corvino jubente
Promere languidiora Tina. — Hon. On. iii. 21. 5.

»» moritore Delli,

Sen moestus onmi tempore vixeris.
Sen te in remote gramine per dies
Festos reclinatum be&ris
Interiore nota Falemi. — Hoa. Od. ii. 3. 4.

dolentem nee Phrygius lapia,

Nee purpurarum sidere clarior
Delenit usus, nee Falema
Vitis. — HoR. Od. hi. I. 41.

Baechi cura, Falemua ager. — Tib. i. 9. S4.

^ Caecubum, et prelo domitam Caleno
Tu bibes uvam : mea nee Falemae
Temperant rites neque Formiani

Pocula oolles. — HoR. Od. i. 20, 9.
Premant Calenam falce, quibus dedit
Fortuna, vitem. — Hor. Od. i. 31, 9.
^ Setinum, dominaeque niyes, densique trientes,

Quando ego tos, medico non prohibente, bibam f — Mart.

Nulla aconita bibuntur

Fictilibus : tunc ilia time, cum pocula sumes
Gemmata, et lato Setinum ardebit in auro. — Jut. Sat. x. 26.
Their sumptuous gluttonies, and gorgeous feasts
On citron tables or Atlantic stone,

TOWNS ON THE COAST OF ITALY. 35

4. On the coast of Campania, were Owma/e^ which
Virgil makes the first landing place of Aeneas in
Italy, and the abode of the Sibyl who conducted him
to the shade of his father Anchises, in the abodes
of the dead ; Baiae^^ a favomite watering place ;
Puteoli (Puzzuoli); and Parthenopey subsequently
Neapolis (Napoli, Naples), one of the numerous
Greek colonies planted along the southern shore
of the Peninsula, which procured for it the name of
Magna Oraecia. At a little distance across the
bay on which Naples stands, is Vesuvius^ a volcano,
of which the first eruption upon record took place
A. D. 79;* and it has been ever since the only active

Their wines of Setia, Cales, and Faleme,
Chios, and Crete, and how they quaff in gold,
Crystal, and myrrhine cups, embossed with gems
And studs of pearl. — Milt. Par. Reg. iv. 114.
^ Et tandem Euboids Cumarum adlabitur oris. — A»N. vi. 2.
^ Nullus in orbe sinus Bails praelucet amoenis. — Hob. Ep. i. 1.83.
Balanosque sinus, et foeta tepentibus undis
Littora.--STAT. Silv. hi. 2. 17.
Gose to Baiae were the lakes Zttorintu and Avemus*
* That is, after VirgiPs death, and during the lifetime of the
'poets Statins and Valerius Flaccus : hence the difference of tone
in their descriptions of the locality. Virgil says — (agrum)
Et facilem pecori et patientem Tomeris unci
Dives arat Capua et vicina VeseTo
Ora jugo. — Geobo. ii. 223.
The later poets speak thus : —
Littoribus fractas ubi Vesbius egerit iras,
Aemula Trinacriis volvens incendia flammis. — St. Sil. iv. 479.

mugitor anhelat

Vesvius, attonitas acer cum suscitat urbes^ — Val. Fl. hi. 209.

Vesuvinus apex, et flammea diri

Montis hyems, trepidas exhausit civibus urbes. — lb. iv. 500.

36 TOWNS ON THE COAST OF ITALY.

volcano in continental Europe. At the base of Ve-
suvius, and overwhelmed by its eruptions, were the
now buried cities of Herculaneum and Pompeiij dis-
covered and partially disinterred within the last and
present centuries. Not far oflf, inland, waa Nolay at
the siege of which Hannibal first received a check,
(Liv. 23, 16). It was at Nola that Augustus died.

5. On the coast of LucaniAj was Posidoniaj v.
Paestumy famed for its roses and its ruined temples.^
On that part of the Lucanian coast which is in the
8tnti8 TarentinitSy were Metapontum, the residence
for a time of Pythagoras, and of Hannibal ; Eera-
deay the place of assembly for the deputies from
the states of ikC4<?Jv:4 Obaecia; %iam, proverbial
for the luxury and eflfeminacy of its inhabitants ; — a
reproach which has passed into our own language in
the use of the word ^ Sybarite.' In the bay, but
beyond the limits of Lucania, was Tarefotumy on
the brook GalestiSy famed for the fine quality of the
wool raised on its banks.^

6. In Ageb BBUTTiuSy on the Fretum Siculumy
(Strait of Messina) was a rock with a cave under it,
supposed to be the residence of the fabled monster
Scylla; farther along, in the narrow part of the
Strait, was the town of Bhegiunty supposed to have
received its name from the tradition of Sicily having
been there broken off from Italy (a-iio ton porpjvat,

* Fragravit ore, quod rosarium Paesti

Quod Atticarum prima mella cerarum. — Mabt. v. 37, 9.
— biferique rosaria Paesti. — Vikg. G. iv. 119.
M Dulce pellitis ovibus Galesi
Flumen et regnata petam Laconi
Rura Pbalanto. — Hor. Od. ii. 6. 10.

TOWNS ON THE COAST OF ITALY. 37

Strabo). Near the Lacinian promontory, Crotoriy
where Pythagoras long resided and taught his doc-
trines : the birth-place also of the famous wrestler,
Milo, hence called Crotoniatcs.'^

7. On the Adriatic coast of ApuliAj after doub-
Ung prow. Japygium (C. Leuca), we find Hydrua v.
Hydruntum (Otranto), the nearest transit to Greece,
but less frequented for that purpose than Brundusi
um^ which had an excellent harbour and was the
terminus of the Via Appia^ the great high road from
Rome to Greece. Bnindtmum^ and Dyrrhachium
on the opposite coast, were the Dover and Calais of
the ancient world. This part of the Apulian coast
was inhabited by a people called Caldbriy whose
town Bvdtae was the b. pi. of the poet Ennius, who
is hence called by Cicero — Rudius homo,'^ and his
poetry by Horace — ' Calabrae PterUes,'' Next
comes the projection of the land occupied by Mt.
GargdmiSj and its oak forests^ (^querceta Gargani.')

8. On the coast of Picenum occurs a smaller pro-
jection of the land, which, from the form it takes,
was likened to the human elbow, ipcov, and hence
the town built on it got the name oiAncon v. Aruidnaj
(Dalmaticis obnoxia fluctibus Ancon, — Luc.ii.401.)

9. On 'the coast of Umbbia were two towns of
note, 1. 8ena^ to which the epithet OaUicaWBA ad-

^ See a curious account of this city and the adjoining Temple of
Juno Lacinia in Liv. xxiv. Z,

^ Nunc Rudiae solo memorabile nomen alumno. — SiL. xii. 397.

" Horace compares the uproar in a Roman theatre to a storm
among the woods of Garganus : — Epist. i. 1. 202 —

Garganum mugire putes nemus, i. e, saeviente in Theatre ' ig-
nobili vulgo.'

38 TOWNS ON THE COAST OF ITALY.

ded, as well to denote the fact of its being' originally
a Gallic settlement, as to distinguish it from Sefm
Julia^ an inland town in Etruria ; the former is now
Sinigaglia, the latter Sienna; and 2. Arimvmim
(Eimini), the storming of which was Caesar's first
overt act of civil war after crossing the Rvbicon.
Between those Umbrian towns flows the small river
MetawniSj where Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal,
was defeated and slain by the consuls Livius and
Nero, A. u. 546, (Livy xxvi. 46-9).^

10, 11. On the coast of Gallia Cisalpina^ south
of the Po, stood Ravenna^ near which Augustus con-
structed a station for his fleet on the Mare Saperum^
as he did at Misenumj near Naples, to guard the
Mare Inferum. Kavenna is now four miles from
the sea ; and it may be observed, generally, that in
the lower course of the Po, the Colmata (i. e. cwmw-
Zato, successive deposits of soil in the channels of
of rivers, in consequence of floods and artificial em-
bankments) has already raised the bed of the river
30 feet above the level of the adjoining plain, {vid.
Lalande, Voyage en Italic).

North of the Po, lay the districts called Venetian
(on the shore of which is the modem city of Venice),

** Quid debeas, O Romay Neronibus
Testis Metauram flumen et Asdrubal
Devictus.— HoR. Od, iv. 4, 37.
Dixit, et antiquae muros egressa Hayenna
Signa movet ; jamque ora Padi, portusque relinquit
Flumineos, certis ubi legibus advena Nereus
Aestnat, et pronas puppes nunc amne secundo,
Nunc redeunte vehit ; nudataque litora fluctu
Deserity Oceani lunaribussemuladamiiis. — Claud, vi, C.H. 494.

ITALIAN ISLANDS. 39

Camiay and Istriaj extending to the little stream
Arauiy the Eastern Boundary of Italy. Along this
coast, the chief ancient towns were AquiUtay Ter-
geste, now Trieste, and Fola.

ITALIAN ISLANDS OP NOTE.

Off the coast of Etruria, lies Mva v. Aethaluz
(Elba), famed of old for the richness of its iron ores,
(^ Insula inexhaustis Chalybmn generosa metallis,'
Aen. X. 174), and in recent times, as the temporary
place of banishment of Napoleon ; and not far W.
ia Corsica^ the island where he was bom. Off the
coast of Campania are the islands of Prochyta
(Procida), Inarime (Ischia),^ and on the opposite
side of the Bay, Capreae^ the retreat of the infamous
Tiberius ;^ and on the other side of \he.prom. Miner-'
vacy the three rocky islets, Slrenusaey (vTfjotdta xpta
icpoxet|i£va, epujixa, Trexpoiif], Strab.)*^ Directly S. of
Corsica is Sardiniay called Ichnuaa by the Greeks,
from its supposed resemblance to the impress of the
human foot (iX'-'OCj vestigium)}^

^ Turn sonita Prochyta alta tremit, darumque cubile

Inarime, Jovis imperils imposta TyphoSo. — Aen. ix. 7 1 5.
** Principis angoBlA Caprearum in rape sedentis

Cum grege Chaldaeo. — Jut. x. 95.
^ Sirenom voces et Circae pocula ndsli. — Hoa. Ep. t.

yitanda est improba l^ren

Desidia.— HoR. S. ii. 3. 14.
^ Humanae in speciem plantae so magna figurat

Insula, — Sardoam veteres dixere coloni —

Diyes ager frugom. — Claudian.

opimas

Sardiniae segetes feracis. — Hob. Od. i. 31. 4.

40 ITALIAN ISLANDS — SICILIA.

To the S. E. of Sardinia, near the extremity of
Italy, lies the group of volcanic islets called Im.
Aeoliae v. Vulcaniae^^ (Lipari Islands), of which
one only, Strongyle (Stromb5li), is still active.

South of this group, lies SiciliAj^^ called also
Sicania^ Trinajcria v. Triquetra Tellus.^^ The three
promontories, (xpia axpa, trina comua, Ov.)j at the
three comers of the triangular island were, N. E.
PeldruSj S. E. PachynuSy and W. Lilyhoeum}'^

In the Strait, Fretum Stculuniy which separates
Italy from Sicily, the poets describe a whirlpool
called CkarybdtSy opposite to ScyUa^ on the Italian
side. These were the two bugbears of ancient navi-
gators, between which it was thought so difficult to
steer, that in avoiding the one it was hardly possible
not to fall a prey to the other. Hence came the
proverbial use of the modem line, ^ Incidit in Scyl-
1am, qui vult vitare Charybdin.' A little to the
E. was the town of Zancky^^ originally so named

" Vulcani domus et Vulconia nomine tellus. — Abr. tiii. 422.

^ Haec loca, vi quondam et vasta convulsa ruinfL,
(Tantom aeyi longinqua valet mutare vetustas !)
Dissilmsse ferunt, cum protenus utraque tellus
Una foret : yenit medio Ti pontus, et undis
Hesperium Siculo latus abscidit, arvaque et urbes
Littore diductas angusto interluit aestu. — Aen. hi. 414.

*^ Terra tribus scopulis yastum procurrit in aequor

TrinacriB, a poedtn nomen adepta loci. — Ov. Fast. ly. 419.

** tribus haec excurrit in aequora Unguis ;

£x quibus imbriferos obyersa Pachynus ad Austros ;
Mollibus expositum Zephyris Lilyboeon ; at Arcton
Aequoris expertem spectat Boreamque Pelorus. —

Oy. M. XIII. 724.

*^ Zancle quoque juncta fuisse

THE ALPS. 41

from Carpfkfiy a sickle,** which the form of the har-
bour suggested, afterwards Messdna^ now Messina.
We next pass OaUne V. Caidnej Catania," which
has suffered much and repeatedly from the lava of
Aetna — ^the burning mountain, equally famed in
fable and in history ;* and crossing Simaethusj the
river of longest course in the Island, we arrive at
StbacusaEj the renowned metropolis of ancient
Sicily. In front of the harbour is the island of
Oriygia v. NasoSy and in it the fountain Arethvsay
of poetical celebrity.

On the coast between Pachynua and Lilyboeum
was Agrigentumj or in the Greek form, AcragaSy the
second city in ancient Sicily ; an early rival of Car-
thage, and noted for a Temple of Jupiter, of which
some gigantic fragments still remain. The ancient
name survives in the modem Girgenti.

Between Lilyboeum and Pelorus, on the northern
shore of the Island, the notable localities are, Dre-
panum (Trapani), so called, like Zancl^, from the
form of its harbour, (SpeiravT] meaning a scythe) ;
Eryxy a Town, and Mountain; the latter surmounted
by a Temple of Venus Erycina ; and off the shore
Aegdtes tnsulaey where the Romans gained a naval

Dicitur Italiae, donee confinia pontus
AbfltuHt, et media tellurem reppulit unda. —

Ov. Mbt. XV. 290.
^ Quique locus curvae nomina falcis habet. — Oy. F. it. 474.

** Catane, nimium ardenti yicina Typhoe'o. — Sil. xit. 196.

* For a locus dasnetu on Aetna see Virg. Aen. iii. 571 — 583 ;
another on Scylla and Charybdis^ ib. 420 ; and a third on Ortygia,
Arethiua, and other localities in Sicily, ib. 692.

42 THE ALPS.

victory, which put an end to the first Punic war.**
PanormuSj now Palermo, the modem Capital of Si-
cily ; and south-west from it Segeste with its temple
almost entire. In the centre of the Island, (vm-
billco Sidliae) was t

that fair field

Of Eima^ where Proserpine gathering flowers.

Herself a fairer flower, by gloomy Dis

Was gathered ; which cost Ceres all that pain.

To seek her through the world. — Milt. Par. L. it. 268.

Before quitting Italy and the Italian Islands it
may be well to add a few Notes on the Alps, and on
some other peculiarities of the country which have
not come under our notice in the geographical de-
tail, but of which it is right the classical student
should be cognizant.

The great range of mountains called the Alps,
Alpes-iunij extends nearly 600 miles in the form
of a crescent, (between 5° and 18** E. Long., and
44** and 47^^ N. Lat.,) with various indentations
and sinuosities, jfrom the Var to the Adriatic, pre-
senting generally an abrupt face towards Italy, and
sloping more gradually on the. other side. Its
diflferent parts were anciently distinguished by diflFe-
rent epithets, most of which are still retained. These
were : — 1. Alpea Maritimae^ the Maritime Alps, ex-
tending from the Mediterranean to Mom VesultiSj
Monte Viso ; the mountain, as we have seen, which
gives origin to the Po. 2. Thence to the modern

^ Hannibaly aevi

Flore yirens, ayet Aegates abolere, parentum

Dedecufl, et Siculo demergere foedera ponto. — Sil. Ital. t. 60.

THE ALPS — HIGH EOADS. 43

Mt Cenis, were Alpes Cottiacy including Mt Ge-
nfevre. This portion of the chain took its name
from a Gallic chief who had early made his peace
with Augustus, and assisted him in subduing the
Alpine tribes whose names are enumerated on the
triumphal arch erected " at Susa. 3. The Alpes
Oratae extended from Mt Cenis to Mt Blanc.
Upon the name, which was probably of Celtic ori-
gin, the Bomans engrafted the fable, that Hercules, on
his way home from the extremity of Spain with the
oxen of Geryones, drove them over the Alps by one
of the passes here. There is strong ground for be-
lieving that the pass of the little St Bernard, which
is in this portion of the Alps, was that by which
Hannibal eflfected his march over the Alps. 4. From
Mt Blanc to St Gothard {Adula) were the Aljpes
Penmnae v. SummaSy the central and highest of the
whole range. Livy (xxi. 38.) refiites the absurd
idea that the former name was given from the tran-
sit of the Poeni {qtmai Poeninae), and traces it to a
temple on the summit to Jupiter Pennmus. He
might have found the true origin of the term in the
Celtic word Pen or Ben, so commonly used in our
own Highlands to express a lofty mountain, as Ben
Nevis, Ben More, &c. Then follow eastward Alpes
Rhaeticaej Camicaej JuliaCy whose respective limits
it is not easy to define, till they reach the Sinus Fla-
natictiSy the gulf of Quamero.

Of this huge mountain chain, Adula, St Gothard,
may be regarded as the centre or nucleus : for though
not the highest summit, (that honour belongs to
Mt Blanc), it occupies, with its surrounding group

44 THE ALPS — HIGH ROADS.

of mountains, the most elevated ground of the
whole range, as plainly appears from the circum-
stance, that the rivers which rise there flow towards
every point of the compass. The summits of most
of the central group are covered with perpetual snow,
and the slopes and hollows in the sides of many
are filled with glaciers^ which are masses of porous
ice formed by the consolidation and partial melt-
ing of the snows. The lower extremities of the
glaciers, where they encroach on the vallies, are in
a constant state of fusion when the weather is mild ;
and the water thus produced gives rise to streamlets,
many of which afterwards become mighty rivers.
The glaciers, in spite of this process of melting, are
maintained apparently undiminished in size, by the
gradual descent of the entire mass at the rate of seve-
ral inches daily in summer, — a descent which is the
result of its own weight and of the incumbent pres-
sure of the snow on the summits and sides. The
gradual elongation and paring that takes place in the
nails of the fingers may serve as a familiar illustra-
tion of these facts in the history of the glaciers.

Viae Italicae. — The chief lines of Koman
Road in Italy were; Via Appia,*^ (regina via"
rumj leading at first from Rome to Capua,
and continued onwards to Brundtisium: — the great
high road to Greece. — ^ViA Flaminia, by Ocricu-
Ivm to Ariminvm, — VlA AURELIA, along the coast

^^ Hoc iter (ad Forum Appii) ignavi divisimufl^ altius ac bos
Praecinctis unum : minus est gravis Appia tardis. —

HoR. S. I. 5. 5.

HISTORICAL EPOCHS. 46

of Etruria to Pisae; continued afterwards to Sa-
vona, and at last to Areldte^ Aries. — Via Aemi-
LIA, first from Ariminum to Bononuij then through
Placentta to Medtolanumy Verona, Patamuniy and
Aquikia. — ^ViA Cassia, through Etmria, between
the Aurelia and Flaminia. — Via Valeria, through
the country of the Sabtm, Aequiy and Marst, into
that of PeltgnL — Via Latina, through Tusculuniy
Anaffnia, Vmafrum, and Tednum Stdtdnum to Co-
stlinum, where it joined the VlA APPIA.

HistorioalEpochs. — Italy, to say nothing of the
Aboriginal population, (that is, the tribes of whose
first settlement there is no record,) is said to have
been colonized at an early period from various quar-
ters : I. From PaUanteum in Arcadia, by Evander
who settled on the banks of the Tiber, sometime
before the Trojan war, and built his city on the
Palatine Hill : II. From Asia (Minor), by Tyrrhe-
nus, with a colony of Lydians, (Herod. 1. 118.) and
by Antenor the Trojan, who led a band of Hen^ti
into Italy after the fall of Troy, and founded Pata-
vium : III. From Aetolia, by Diomede, the Grecian
hero, who settled in Apulia, and built Argyrvpa v.
Arpi: IV. By Aeneas, with his Trojan followers :
And, V. By the Gauls, who overran the northern part.
All these tribes and colonies fell successivelyunderthe
dominion of Kome, during the first 500 years of her
existence as a state. For the next seven centuries
Italy formed a part, first of the Republic, then of
the Empire of Eome. Odoacer, a Barbarian adven-
turer, was crowned King of Italy, A. D. 476, and
during the next thousand years, comprehending what

46 REMAINS OP ANTIQUITIES.

are called the Middle Ages, the Republics of Modem
Italy rose, flourished, and decayed. After that pe-
riod, Italy Proper was divided among three petty
potentates, — the Grand Duke of Tuscany, the Pope,
and the King of Naples. A temporary change wa^
effected in this arrangement, during the French Ee-
volution, particularly by Napoleon. But the old
order of things was re-established at the Congress of
Vienna in 1815, with a few exceptions.

Antiquities. — Italy so abounds in these, that a
few only of the most remarkable can be added here
to those already mentioned. At Capua, Casinum,
Puteoli, and Verona, are ruins of Amphitheatres ;
that of the last named was built to accommodate
30,000 spectators, and has suffered so little from
time as to have been used on several public oc-
casions in modem times. It is 1416 feet in circum-
ference: — the Coliseum at Bome is 1719. — ^Num-
berless ancient remains have been imcovered and
dug up at Herculaneum and Pompeii, two towns on
the Bay of Naples, which were overwhelmed in an
eruption of Mount Vesuvius, A. D. 79, the former
by a stream of lava, the latter by a shower of hot
ashes. The first traces of Herculaneum were disco-
vered in 1713 ; the clearing of the ashes from Pom-
peii was begun in 1755, and has proceeded since so
far as to expose to view houses, streets, tombs, and
temples. The greater part of the moveable objects
are now collected in the Museo Borbonico at Naples,
and some are to be found in the British Museum.
Among these is almost every article of ancient house-
hold ftuniture in perfect preservation, and also many

REMAINS OF ANTIQUITY. 47

rolls {volumtna) of MSS. reduced to charcoal, which
attempts have been made with little success to unfold
and decypher. Statues, coins, and other antiquities
have also been found at VeUeuij a town about 15 m.
south of Placentiay which, in the latter part of the
fourth century, was buried by the simultaneous
slipping down of the opposite sides of two mountains
between which it was situated. The rubbish began
to be removed in 1760, but little progress has hitherto
been made. — ^At Igumum (Eugubio or Gubbio)
S. E. of Ttfemum on the Tiber, seven copper tab-
lets were dug up, A. D. 1448 ; two covered with
inscriptions in Roman characters, and five in a cha-
racter and language which, in spite of the learning
of Lanzi {Saggio di Lingua Etrusca), are still but
imperfectly decyphered. — ^At Paestum, 20 leagues
firom Naples, the ruins of three beautiful temples, of
the simplest Doric order, and of great antiquity. —
At Narnia, the remains of a bridge built by Augus-
tus. — On the road firom Naples to Puzzuoli, is the
Grypta NeapoUtanay Grotto of Pausilipo, a gallery
or tunnel through a hill, 2323 feet in length, de-
scribed by Seneca, and of unknown antiquity.

The most remarkable ancient remains and posi-
tions are in Rome itself. To begin with the seven
hills, viz. The Capitoline, Palatine, Aventine, Cae-
lian, Esquiline, Viminal, and Quirinal. — 1. On the
Capitol, were the temples of Jupiter Feretriusy and *
Jupiter CapitoUnus^ and the Tahulariumj or Regis-
ter-office. 2. The Palatine, on which Rome was
originally built, (thence called Roma Quadrataj from
the form of that hill,) was afterwards almost entirely

48 LOCALITIES AND RUINS IN BOME.

covered with the Pahce of Augustus and the Temple
of Apollo with the library attached to it ;— of all
which nothing remains but a few substructions.
3. The Aventine, the seat of the robber Cacus and
long held unlucky from the fate of Remus, contained
afterwards the Temple of Diana, built by Servius
Tullius ; the Temple of Juno vowed by Camillus at
Veii, whence the statue of the goddess was brought;
and the Temple of Bona Dea, consecrated by the
Vestal Claudia ; on the east slope of this hill were
the Baths of Garacalla, the ruins of which still re-
main. 4. On the Caelian, called also Querquetula-
nu8y stood the Palace of the Laterani family, {egre-
ffice Lateranorum AedeSj Juv. x.) presented to the
Church by Constantine, and now called the Church
of St. John Lateran ; near which stood the statue
of Marcus Aurelius, since removed to the Capitol.
Here also is the remnant of a noble portico, supposed
to be part of the Curia Eostilia, Between the Pa-
latine, Esquiline, and Caelian, lies the Amphitheatre
of Vespasian, called the Coliseum. 5. On the Es-
quiline, the Baths and Palace of Titus, among the
ruins of which was found the famous statue of Lao-
coon and his sons, called the Laocoon^ and the Man-
sion and Gardens of Maecenas, on what was once a
burying-ground.*® 6. To the East of the ViminalHill,
which, from the levelling and iSlling up, it is more dif-
cult to trace than any of the rest, stood the Baths of
Diocletian ; still farther eastward, beyond the Agger

^ Nunc licet Esquiliis habitare salubribus, atque
Aggere in aprico spatiari, quo modo tristes
AlbiB informem spectabant oasibus agrum. — Hoe. S. i. 8. 14.

LOCALITIES AND RUINS IN ROME. 49

of Tarqainivs^ ^za the Praetorian Camp. 7. On
the Quirinal hill, now Monte Cavallo, (so called
from the two equestrian groups falsely supposed to
represent Alexander and Bucephalus and to be the
workmanship of Phidias and Praxiteles,) stood the
Temple of the deified Komulus ; Sallust's house and
gardens, which extended over the Pincian hiU or
Gollis Hiyrtulormn ; the Campus Sceleratus ; and the
Baths of Constantine.

^These seven hills were all on the left bank of the
Tiber : on the right or Etrurian side were the cTam-
culum and Mona Vaticaniis.

Between the Quirinal and Capitoline was Trajan's
Forum, in the centre of which stands the Columna
Trqjanay representing his Dacian conquests.

The Campus Martins was a plain inclosed by a
bend of the Tiber, and bounded by the Capitoline
an J Quirinal hills. It was originally used as a place
of exercise and for the meetings of the People, but
towards the end of the Republic it began to be oc-
cupied with buildings, and was inclosed by the Em-
peror Aurelian within the walls. Amongst those
buildings were, 1. The Ma|isoleum of Augustus,
the first distinguished tenant of which was young
Marcellus, son of Augustus's sister Octavia and
heir of the empire, whose premature death is so
pathetically lamented by Virgil at the close of the
sixth book of the Aeneid ;*^ 2. The Antonine Pillar ;

^ QuantoB ille vir^ magnam Mayortis ad nrbem
CampoB aget gemitos ! vel quse^ Tiberiue^ yidebis
Fimera^ quum tumulom prvterlabSre recentem ! See,

E

50 LOCALITIES AND RUINS IN ROME.

3. Septa Julta^ or Oviluiy inclosures for the people
to vote in, rude at first and wattled with twigs, like
»Ae^hurdles, — ^afterwards, when the people had no
free voice, made of marble ; 4. The Temple of Mi-
nerva, built by Pompey out of the spoils of thirty
years' successftd war (vid. Plin. Hist. N. vii. 26) ;
5. The PantJieonj Botonda, the best preserved of all
the ancient temples ; 6. Circus Agonalia ; 7. Pom-
pey's Theatre, whence were visible the Janiculvm
and Mms Vaticanus (vid. Hor. Od. i. 20.) on the
Tuscan side of the Tiber. The latter hill was added
to modem Rome by the Popes, and contains the
Church and Dome of St. Peter, and the Vatican
Library.
Other remarkable places in Home were,

1. Forum Momanum^ the great centre of busi-
ness, commercial and political, lying between the
Capitoline and Palatine hills. Here stood — 1. the
Temple of Jupiter Stator, of which three pillars still
remaining are supposed to be part ; 2. the Temple
of Concord, where the Senate usually met ; 3. the
Temple of Jupiter Tonans, or rather of Saturn, at
the foot of the Glvmis Qapitolinus; 4. the triumphal
arch of Septimius Severus, still pretty entire ; near
which the MUUarium Aureum (urribiUeus BomaeJ;
and 5. the Gomitium. The Via Sacra led from flie
Forum towards the Coliseum,

2. Circus Maximusy between the Capitoline and

^ in yon field below

A thousand years of silenced factions sleep.

The Forum, where the immortal accents glow.
And still the eloquent air breathes — ^bums with Cicero. — Btron.

BRIDGES IN ROME. 51

Aventine^ for tlie exhibition of chariot rax^es, and
other contests of strength and agility.

3. Velabrumy the low ground between the Pala-
tine and the River.

4. The Bridges over the Tiber in Rome, seven in
number: — Pons SubliciuSj called afterwards, when
built of stone, AemilitLS ; — Fabrtcius and CestiuSy
leading to and from Insula Sacra, the Island ojf
Aesculapius ; — Palatimis or SmatoriuSy now Ponte
Rotto; — Vaticanus ox TriumpKalis : these five are
more or less destroyed ; — JaniculensiSy now Ponte
di Sisto ; — ^and Aeliits, built by Adrian to give ac-
cess to his magnificent Mausoleum, now the Bridge
and Castle of St Angelo. The Pons Mtlmiis, now
Ponte Molle, is without the city on the way to the
Mans Sacer.

52

ILLYRIGUM, ILLYRI8, rarely ILLYRIA,—
DALMATIA,

Consisted chiefly of a stripe of sea-coast of various
breadth, between the Hadriatic on one side, and on
the other a chain of Mountains, called successively
Atbiij Baibiij and Scardus or Bcodrvjs^ which runs
parallel with that Sea, and is connected with the
Alps on the west side, and with Mount Easmus on
the east. Illyeicum lay between Lat. 42° and 45**
SCy N. and Long. 14° and 20° E. Its N. W. limit
being the little river Arsia, it maybe said to extend
S. E. to the confines of Epirus. Its chief divisions
were Ltbumia and Balmatia, the former noted for
the light galleys {Lihumae^ sc. naves) which it for-
nished to the imperial fleets, the latter for its chief
town Salonay which the Emperor Diocletian made
his place of retreat after his abdication. The ruins
of his palace are still seen at Spalatro, three miles
distant from the town.

Having reached the river Aom, and come in sight
of the infames acopulas Acrocerauniaj we find our-
selves at last on the soil of that country in which it
may be said with the least poetical exaggeration,
that

^ Not a mountain rears its head unsong.'*

^ Ibis Liburnis inter alta navinm,
Aniice, propngnacula,
Parktos omne Caesaris periculiun
Sublre^ Maecenas, tuo. — Hor. Epod. i. 1.

\
\

53

VI.
GRAECIA vel HELLAS.

Haec euncta Graecia, quae famA, quae gloriii, quae dootrinA,
quae plurimis artibus^ quae etiam imperio et bellici virtute, floruit,
parvum quendam locum in Europa tenet semperque tenuit—

Cic. pro Flaooo, 27.

Obaecia (apud Romanos), — (apud Graecos ipsos)
HELLAS-Sdosy are terms which, taken in their widest
acceptation, comprehend PsLOPOirirssuSy Oraeoia

PBOPRIAy THE88ALIAy EPIRUSy and MACEDONIA,

Add to the last the contiguous country of THRACiAy
of which the coast at least was planted thick with
Greek colonies, and we shall have a portion of the
earth's surface (contained within the parallels of Lat.
36* and 41° North, and the lines of Long. 37° and
47° East), which may be contemplated as a triangu-
lar space, having the mountain chain of Haemus for
its base, the coast lines of the Aegean and Ionian
seas for its sides, and Gape Taenanis (Matapan) the
Southern extremity of the PeloponnesiLSy for its apex.
This triangular space is nearly bisected by the chain
of PiNDUS^ and its adjuncts, which constitute the
water-shed of the whole country, separating the
rivers on the Eastern side, which flow into the Ae-

^ Of fhifl mountain-range it may be said with still more pro-
priety than of OOa^ which Liyy is speaking of, ' Id jugum, sicut
Apennini jugo Italia diyiditur, ita mediam Graedam dirimit.' —
XXXTI. c. 16.

64 PELOPONNESUS.

gean, from those on the Western, which flow into
the Ionian Sea.

We shall take the six Sections of Ancient Greece
in the order just enumerated, proceeding from the
south northward.

Peloponnesus'^ — Moeea.*

The leaf-shaped peninsula so called is almost en-
tirely covered with mountainous derations and the
well-watered valleys between them. This is par-
ticularly the case with the central region Arcadia^
which, on this account, was assigned to the god
of shepherds, ^ Pan ovium custos,' and is identified

' Homer calls it ^ the Apian land,*' as when Nestor says,

T«}X«^iy l| * A^int y»*nt * »«Xf #«»«*« ya^ avret* — II. A. 269.

' The modem name MorSa cannot be derived, as is commonly
thought, from Morus, a Mulberry tree, to the leaf of which the
peoinsula bears no resemblance. Even the accurate D^Anyille
countenances this blunder, and from him it has been copied into
most of our geographical treatises. Speaking of the Peloponnesus,
he says, <^La figure fort ^chancr^e par plusieurs golfes Ta fait
comparer k une feuille, et c'est d'apris celle du fneurier que le
nom de Morde lui est donntf."* But Strabo and all ancient geo-
graphers remark its likeness to the leaf, not of the Morusy but of
the PlcUanus. « Pktani folio similis," says Phny, ** propter angu-
loBOS recessus^— Nat. Hist. it. 4. And whether the platanus be
the Oriental Plane, or our Sycamore, the resemblance to the leaf
of either is striking.

* D'AnviUe, G^gr. Anc. Abrtg^ Vol. i. p. 371. Paris^Ed. 1768.

MOUNTAINS OF PELOPONNESUS. 65

in bur language with images of pastoral life and ru-
ral simplicity.*

Among the Mountains, the most noted were,
1. Cyllenej^ repiuted \>j ancients and modems to be
the highest of them all, and fabled to have been
the birth-place of Mercury,® and his stepping-stone,
when, acting in his character of * Deorum nuncius,'
he started from, or * lighted on the heaven-kissing
hilL' 2. LycaeuSj and 3. Ma^ndlusj both favourite
haunts of Pan.^ 4. Tdyg^im^ the resort of Spartan
maidens (^ Yirginibus bacchata Lacaenis'), a range
of mountains now called, from its five peaks, Pente-
dactylon (Tcevre, quinque, and SoxtuXoc, digitus), which
runs from N. to S., till it terminates at the bluff
promontory of Tamdrua (Matapan, from |istcim:ov),
the Southern point of Greece, where Virgil places

^ Pana Deum pecoris yeteres coluiase ferantur
Arcades. Arcadiis plurimus ille jugis.
Testis erit Pholoe^ testes Stymphalides undae,

Quique citis Ladon in mare currit aquis,
Ginctaque pinetis nemoris juga Nonacrini,

Altaque Cyllene, Parrhasiaeque niyes^-OT. Fast. ii. 271.

imcisque timendae

Ungnibus Arcadiae volucres Stymphala colentes. — Lucy. 31.
' Some recent measurements have ascertained that one of the
five Peaks of Mt TSygetus is a few feet higher than Cyll€ne.

" quem Candida Mala

Cyllenae gelido conceptum vertice fudit. — Abn. tiii. 138.

enixa jugo cupressiferae Cyllenes

Aeiherimn volucri qui pede carpit iter. (i. e. Mercurium.)
Arcades hunc, Ladonque rapax et Maenalus ingens
Rite colunt, LunA credita terra prior.— Ov. Fast. t. 87.
^ Ipse nemus linquens patriom saltusque Lycaei,
Pan ! oyium custos, tua si tibi Maenala curae,
Adsis, Tegecee farens.— Georo. i. 16.

66 RIVERS OF PELOPONNESUS.

one of the approaches to the infernal regions.® 5.
StymphdlvSj a mountain, town, and lake, where
dwelt the voracious birds Stymphalldesj that fed on
human flesh, the destruction of which was one of
the twelve labours of Hercules. 6. EryrnanihuSj the
haunt of the boar, to destroy which was another of
the prescribed labours of Hercules.*

The chief EiVERS of Peloponnesus were the two
following : — 1. Alfhejjs^ by much the largest and
longest. On its right bank, not a great way from
the embouchure, was the Town of jRwa, and near it,
the Plain of Olympiaj where the most famous of the
Greek games were celebrated the first month of
every fifth year ; a period of time which was called an
Olympiad, and formed the basis of Greek chronolo-
gy. Here also was the sacred grove AMs^ planted
by Hercules and adorned with the renowned statue
of Jupiter by Phidias. The Alpheus, in its course,
disappears under ground for a time, which gave rise
to the fiction of the river-god making his way under
the sea to meet his Arethusa in the Sicilian island
Ortygia.^® The Alpheus is joined, on the right
side, by the Helisson, on which was Megahpolisj

Taenarias etiam fauces, alia ostia Ditis. — Gbo. it. 467.
And Horace, Od. i. 34. says —

inyisi horrida Taenari

Se^es.

Herculeo Tulgatos robore monies,

Menstrifemmqne Erymanthon et aerisonnm Stymphalon. —

Stat. Th. iv. 29.

That renowned flood, so often sung,

Diidne Alpheus, who, by secret sluice.

Stole under seas to meet his Arethuse. — Mtlt. Abcad. 21.

PELOPONNESUS. 67

birth-place of the historian Polybius, and of Philo-
poemen 'the last of the Greeks;' and by the Ladon.^^
Among the mountains where Alphens rises^ was
Manttrieay the scene of the second great victory of
the Theban Epaminondas over the Lacedaemonians,
and of his death.

2. The other River of note was the Eurotas. It
rises not far from the Alphens, on the opposite slope
of the water-shed, and flows through a basin bounded
on the W. by Tdyg^tusy on the E. by Mts Parnon
and Zarax. On its banks was the city of Sparta
V. LacedaemoNj the great rival of Athens, not in
arts, but in arms.

The other localities in the Peloponnesus worth
noting will be best learned in connection with the
nx little departments,— ^ve maritime, and cne in-
land, into which it was divided, viz. : — 1. AcHAiAj
bounded on the N. by Sinus Cortnthiacus (Gulf of
Lepanto) and including Corinihia and Sicyonia ;
2. ElIS; 3. ME88ENIA; 4. LaCONIA; 5. AbOOLIS;

and 6. Arcadia.

1. In Achauiy on the IsihmuSj was Ccrinthus
(poetice, JSphyre). It had a port on each side of the

Alphemn fiona est hue Elidis aninem

Occultas egisse vias sabter mare ; qui nnnc

Ore, Arethufla, tno Siculis confimditur undis. — Asm. hi. 691.

^^ ' ArenoH placidum Ladonis ad aninem,' says Ovid. (M. i.

702), and to this line we may trace Milton's epithet in the follow-
ing passage : —

Nymphs and shepherds dance no more

Bj sandy Ladon's lilied banks :

On old Lycaeus or CyUene hoar,

Trip no more in twilight ranks. — Arcad. 97.

58 PELOPONNESUS.

Istlmins^ Lechaeum on the Corinthian Gulf, and
Cenchreae on the Saronic, hence the epithet bimaris.
The Citadel was on the snnunit of a rock called
Aarocorinihus^^ whence sprang the fountain PireneP
Among the costly articles of Boman luxury were
vases of Corinthian brass, an article said to hare
been formed by the casual mixture of molten metals,
when Corinth was taken and burnt by Mummius,
140 years before Christ.^*

2. In Elisj besides Pisa and Olympia, on the
AlpJieuSj was Pylos^ one of three towns of that name
which claimed to be the city of Nestor, the sage of
the Iliad.

3. In Me88ENIA^ in the basin of the stream Pa-
mlsiis, was Messene^ and its citadel IthomCy called by
Philip of Macedon one of the ^ horns of the Pelopon-
nesus,' AcTocorinihus being the other.

4. On the Laconian Coast were the two Promon-
taries, Tcmidrua^ already mentioned, and Malea^ or
Malea, a cape dangerous to mariners.^*

" Jam pronis Gradivus eqnis Ephyrea premebat
Littora, qua siimmas caput Acrocorinthus in auras
ToUit, et alterni geminixm mare protegit umbr&. —

Stat. Theb. yi'. 105.
^' Interbibere sola^ si vino scatet,

Corinthiensem fontem Pirenen potest — Plaut. in Avlul.

^* nobilis aere Gorinthas. — ^Or. Met yi. 416.

lUusasque auro Yestes, Ephyreiaque aera. — Virg. Geo. ii.
• Ant MalSan, ant alta Ceraunia snpra

Cessantes in nube sedent, nigrisque leguntur
CollibuB, et Bubitae salinnt in Yela, procellae.* —

Stat. Th. x. 536.
raucae circumtonat ira MalSae. — Stat. Th. vi. 16.

* Regardless of the sweeping whirlwind's away
That, hnsh'd in grim repose, awaits its evening prey.—QRAY.

GRAECU PBOPRU. 59

5. In Argolia were Argosr. Argij a fevourite city of
Juno, called by Homer iTcicopoxov, which Horace trans-
lates * aptam eqtiis ;^* and Mycenae^ the city of Agar
memnon ; Ttrynsj the reputed birth-place of HercoleSy
who is hence called ^Tirynthius heros ;' Lema and its
Marshy the abode of the many-headed hydra, whi^
it was one of the twelve labours of Hercules to de-
stroy ]^'' and NemeUy the haunt of the Nemean lion,
the killing of which was another of those labours.^®

6. In the inland AecadiAj besides the places
mentioned above, was the town Teg^. Clltor with
its fountain said to render those who drank of it
averse to wine.

11.

Obaeoia Propria.

The Isthmus of Corinth connects Peloponnems with
Greece Proper, the notable localities of which will
be best indicated by referring each to the ancient
division, as well as to the river, where there is one,
on which it was situated. These divisions were
ATTicAy Meqamis^ BoeotiAj PhoqiSj Doris, Lo-
CRiSj AETOLiAy and Acarnania.
1. In Attica stood Athenae^^ with her AcropSlts

^' Aptam didt equis Argos, ditesque Mycenas. — Od. i. 79.

^^ non te rationis egentem

Lemaeus turba capitum circumstetit anguis. — Abn. yiii. 299.
^ ■ tu Cressia mactas

Prodigia et vastom Nem«ae sub pupe leonem. — Aeh. viii. 295.
^' On the fruitful subject of ancient Athens, the reader will find
ft selection of passages £rom ancient and modem classics, at the
conclusion of the chapter on Graecia.

60 ATTICA — BOEOTIA.

and its Parthenon, and her triple harbour, Piraeus^
(Iletpaieix;), Munychia^ and Phalerum; Eleusisj ^ sane-
ta ilia et augusta' (Cic. N. D. i« 42) ; the plain of
Marathon^ memorable for the defeat of the Persians,
A.U.C. 261 ;*i Mt Pentelicua (Mendeli), which fhr-
niahed marble for the bnilding of the Parthenon ;
the*silver mines of Laureon; and the southern Pro-
montoiy Bwnium^^ crowned with the temple of Mi-
nerva Sunias, the pillars of which still standing give
name to the modem Cape Colonne.

2. In BoEOTiA the low country was proverbial
for its thick atmosphere and the pingue ingenium of
its inhabitants f^ but the mountains Ciihaenm^ and
HelicoT?^ with its fountain Hippocreney and the hills

^ trepidis stabilem Piraeea naatis^ — Stat. Thxb. xii. 616.

'1 Eoo claram Marathona trimnpho. — lb. 617.

the mom to distant glory dear,

When Marathon became a magic word. — ^Btbon, C. H. ii. 89,

Each hill and dale, each deepening glen and wold^

Defies the power which crashed thy temples gone ;

Age shakes Athena's tower, but spares grey Marathon. — Btb.

'■ Eois longe speculabile proris

Sonion. — Stat. Thbb. xii. 624.

» BoeotCbn in crasso jurares ilere natoiiL — Hob. £p. ii. 1. 244.
And *i/r fict^rtcs was an expression of contempt for a very sfapid

** electus facienda ad sacra, Cithaeron

Cantibns et clar& bacchantum Tooe sonabat — Oy. M. hi. 702.
^ Me jnvat in primA coluisse Helicona juyent&

Musarmnque ohoris implicuisse manus. — Pbopebt. hi. 5. 19.

Tu (Masai) dax, ta comes es; Tu nos abducis ab Jstro
In medioque mihi das Helicone locum. — Ot. Tb. it. 10. \19-

From Helicon's harmonioos spring

A thousand rills their mazy progress take. — Gbat.

Grentle lady, may thy grave

Peace and quiet erer hare :

BOEOTIA — PHOCIS — ^AETOLIA. 61

which inclose the plain^ were all of a character so
opposite^ that^ under the general name of Aoma^ thej
were celebrated by the poets as the favourite haunts
of the Muses, who were hence called Aomdea^ Aoniae
pueUaey and HeUcomdes v. HeUooniSdea. In BOE-
OTIA were the towns of Thebae the capital, b.-pl.
of Epaminondas and Pindar ; south of it Plataeay
where the confederated Greeks defeated the Persians
under Mardonius ; and Leuctra^ where Epaminondas
gained his first victory over the Lacedaemonians,
A.U.C. 383. On the narrow strait called Ikrljms
which separates Boeotia from Euboea, was AtUis^
where the Grecian fleet destined for Troy was de-
tained by contrary winds, till Agamemnon consented
to the required sacrifice of his daughter Iphigenia.

3. Of Phocis, the remarkable features were, 1. The
fountain-head and early course of the CepAissus (ma-
jor), whose lower basin formed the northern portion of
Boeotia. 2. Mt Pamasavs with its double top {&xo-
pwpo^, bicomis), ^mons Phoebo Bromioque sacer.'
Between the two peaks wtisfona Caataliua^ and far-
ther down, on the Fleiatuaj of which the Castalian
epring is a feeder, stood the Temple of ApoUo, and
m it the Tripod of the Pythia, and the Delphic
Oracle.**

4. Aetolia was fianous in early Greek story as
the country ravaged by the Calydonian Boar, which

Here be tears of perfect moan
Wept for thee in Helicon. —
Milton's Epit. on Mabchioness of WiNcuKSTXBy47 and 55.
* Delphis oracnla cessant — Jut. vi. 556.
The oracles are dumb,
No voice or hideons hum

62 ACABNANIA — EPIRUS.

was slain at last by Meleager. It got its name from
Calydortj the city of Tydeus and of his son Diomed,
the latter so well known to the reader of Homer and
Virgil under his patronymic title Tu&iStjc, Tydides.
Achelous^ the longest and largest of Grecian rivers,
and fabled by the poets to have been the first cre-
ated,^ forms the boundary between Aetolia and

6. AcARNANiAj a district which lies between
Achelous and the Ambracian Gulf. At the entrance
of this gulf, near the promontory Ajctium^ the naval
battle was fought' between Augustus and Marc An-
tony, which secured to the former the undisputed
sovereignty of the Koman World, (B.C. 31).

6. Between the Ambracian Gulf and the Acro-
ceraunian Promontory, lay the extensive region of
Epirus^ famed for its breed both of horses and of
watch-dogs, — the latter called Molossian, firom Mo-
lossiSy a district of Epirus f^ and still more femous
for the most ancient of all the Greek oracles, Dodona.

Having now reached the Western limits of
Greece, we return Eastward to the Aegean shore,

Buns ihro^ the arch^ roof in words deoeiTing ;
Apollo firom his shrine
Can no more divine,
With hollow shriek the steep of Delphos leavmg. —

Milton, Odb ok thb Nitititt.
^ Hence- perhaps the propriety of the epithet Acheloia in the
opening lines of the Georgics : —

Pocnlaque inventis Acheloia miscnit nvii.— Geor. i. 9.
** In medio classes aeratas, Actia bella,
Cemere erat, totomque instmcto Marte Tideres
Fervere Lencaten.^ — Abn. tiii. 675.

"^ domus alta Molossis

Personnit camhus. — ^Hor. Sat. ii. 6. 114.

THESSALIA. 63

^nd find (lying to the N. of Greece Proper and se-
parated from it by Mt Oeta^ which is an offset &om
the Pindus chain) the country called by the ancients

Thessalia.

Physically considered Thessalia is made up of
the basins of two rivers, the Spercheos v. S^chlus,^
and the Pemus, (2TOpxeto< and IlTjvetoc). The fomjer
rising in Mt Tymphreatua (one of the heights of the
Pindus range), not far from the fountain-head of the
Achebus whose course is in the opposite direction,
flows Eastward into the ^rms Maliacus (Gulf of
Zeitoun), through a broad valley (Scotic^, strath;
Graced, auXmv ; Gallic^, hassin)^ which is bounded
by two ranges of hills, and forms a considerable part
of Thessaly. The inclosing hills, offsets from Pin-
dus, are Mt Othrys on the north, and on the south
Mt Oeta, At the eastern extremity of Oeta was the
pass called the Strait of Thermopylaej so honourably
connected with the name of Leonidas. At the mouth
of the Spercheos was Anticyra^ noted for producing
hellebore, which the ancients looked upon as an
antidote against madness : ^ tribus Anticyris caput

^ The TaLe of the Sperchius must have had great natural beauty,
to have been selected by Virgil, in the following exquisite lines, as
one of the retreats which a lover of rural scenery would delight to
dwell in : —

Rura mihi et rigui placeant in yallibus anmes,

Flumina amem silvasque inglorius ! O, ubi campi,

Speroheotque et yirginibus bacchata Lacaenis

Ta^g^Sta ! O qui me gelidis in vaUibus Haemi

Sistat, et ingenti ramomti protegat umbrA? — GsoRa. ii. 488.

64 THESSALIA.

insanabile/ was said of a person incurably wrong-
headed or deranged ; and a man convicted of egregi-
ous folly was advised, * naviget Anticyram/ Theie
was an Anticyra in the Corinthian Gulf, which is
apt to be confounded with this.

The other, and by much the larger portion of
Thessaly, is the basin of the Peneus. It is a terri-
tory containing 4000 square miles of surface, and
possesses the singular property of being encompas-
sed on all the^^r sides, even the side facing the sea,
by ranges of moiyitains ; on the west by Pindus; on
the north by l^Qntes Cambunii fani Pietii; on the
south by Othrys; and on the e^staiid' north-east by
PelioTiy Oasttj and Olympus^ the thre^.hill^, by the
piling of which, one upon the other, the giants at-
tempted to scale the heavens.'^ To the continuity <rf

^ Ter sunt oonati imponere Pelio Osaam

Scilicet, atqne Ossae firondosum inTolvere Olympnm. — G.i. 287.
CLAiTDiiir, a brilliant poet at the close of the 4Ui century, vho
appeared on the horizon of Roman literature after a total eclipse
of 800 years (' Ut pura noctomo renidet Luna mari/) wrote a poem
entitled Qiganltomaohiay of which a fragment only, is extant. The
following is a specimen — . -

Hie (gigas) rotat Haemoniam praedoris rupibus Oeten :
Hie juga connesis maniBus Pangaea coruscat:
Hunc armat glacialis Athos : hoc Ossa movente
Tollitur : hie Rhodopen Hebri cum fonte revellit,
£t socias truncavit aquas; summ&que volutus
Rupe, Griganteoahumeros irrorat Euipeus. — Claud. Gig. 66.
Milton makes a noble use of this passage in his Battle of the
Angels, and shews better taste than his original : —
From their foundations loosening to and fro,
They plucked the seated hiDs with all their load,
Rocks, waters, woods, and by the shaggy tops
Uplifting, bore them in their h^nds. — Par. Lost, yi. 648.

THESSALIA. 65

this mountain-barrier — these lips, as it were, of the
great basin — there is but one interruption, — a rent,
to-wit, in the rocky barrier between Olympus and
Ossa; and through it the single main river of Thessaly
Proper finds its way to the Aegean. This outlet of
the Femus bore the name of Tempcj a valley which
in some places is so narrow as barely to allow the
river to pass between the opposite cliffs. This fact,
coupled with the general aspect of the country, which
presents to the eye an interminable plain, has led to
the almost unavoidable conclusion, that Thessaly
Proper was once a vast Lake, which furnished no
land for the habitation of man, till the rent at Temp^
was either formed or so deepened, as to admit the efflux
of the waters produced in the summits and inner
slopes of the inclosing heights ; — ^which waters then,
and not till then, found an issue in the single stream
of the Pemusj which receives and incorporates and
discharges them all.^^

Among the numerous tributaries of the Pen^iM,
one that joins it on the rightj called Apiddinusj is

"The poetical account of this disraption is finely pven by
Claadian, (Rapt Proserp. ii. 179) : —

com. Thesaliam scopulis indusa teneret^

Peneo stagnante, palus, et mersa negarent
Arva coli, trifida Neptunus cuspide monteg
Impulit adversos: turn forti sancius ictu
Difisiluit gelido yertex Ossaeus Olympo.
Carceribns laxantur aquae, fractoqne meatu
Reddontur fluyiusqne mari tellusque colonis.
See alflo Lucan. Phanu yi. 333, who makes Hercules the agent in
effecting the disruption : — >

discessit Olympo

Hercale4 gravis Ossa mann.

P

66 THESSAUA.

worth noting for two reasons : l«f, Near its source
in Mt Oihrya stood ThaumSci (Oaujioxot, ^ the city
of wonderment/ from OoojiaCo), miror), so called be-
cause the traveller who has been toiling across 0th-
rys first beholds here, with astoniahment, the rich
and to his eye boundless plain that stretches north-
ward before him ; ' repente/ says Liyy, ^ velut vasti
maris expanditur planities, ut subjectos campos ter-
minare oculis hand facile queas/ (b. xxxii. c. 4) :
And 2dlyj because, half way down the stream, where
it is joined by its feeder JEnlpeuSj lies the field where
the battle of PAarsalta was fought between Caesar
and Pompey, (a. u. C. 705). On the Peneifs itself,
below the point where the Aptdanus falls into it,
stood Larwsay which some describe as the City of
Achilles : but that honour belongs rather to another
Lariasay not within the limits of ike great basin, but
in that south-eastern portion of Thessaly called
Fhihiotis^ the country of the Dol8pe8 and the Myrmir
dSnes, To this Larissa is often added, for distinc-
tion's sake, the epithet cremastej i. e^permlisy be^
cause it hangs a^ it were on the slope of a hill. That
stripe of land which lies between the eastern margin
of the great basin and the Aegean, was called Mag-
nesia,

Owing to the deep indentations, numerous projec-
tions, and great irregularity of the line of coast, the
Headlands and Bays make an important feature of
the geography of Greece.

Of the former, Taendrusy Maleay Suniumj and
Capha/reuSj have been already mentioned ; to which

CAPES AND BATS OF QREECE. , 67

may be added ^om. JShium (south) said Anttrrhium
(north) which nearly block up the entrance of the
Sinus Cortnthtacus ; Araxus^ the north-west point
of Peloponnesus, CAelonUes v. -nataa^ the farthest
west ; and Acntas in Messenia.

The Bays and Grulfs connected with Peloponne-
8ns were Sirma Corinthidcusj MesaentacuSy Laconia-
cu8y ArgoUcu8y and Saronlcua : in the last of these
were the Islands of Calaurea, where Demosthenes
died ; Aeglna^ once the rival of Athens at sea ; and
in front of the harbour of Athens, Saldmisy off the
east end of which the fleet of Xerxes was defeated
by the Athenians, 480 b.c. In continental Greece
were the Sinits Malidcus (Zeitoun) Pagctaaeus (Volo),
80 called from the town Pagdsaey where Jason was
said to have buiU the ship Argo, and thence the
snpposed derivation of .the name from TOfj^voju, parir-
go; and along the coast of Macedonia, Sinus Ther^
maicus (Salonichi), TeriruietiSj Singitlcusj and Sty-
monlcus; the last so named because it receives the
Strymony a river whose banks were much firequented
by cranes. Flocks of these birds arranging them-
selves in the form of the Greek letter A were said
to migrate alternately, according to the season, to
the Strymon and to the Nile.*^

" Uhid vero ab Aristotele animadyerscim qais potest non mi-
nri ! GxneSy qamn loca calidiora petentes mariA transmittant,
triangnli effioere fonnaniy &c. — Cic. de Nat. Deor. ii. ch. 49.

Ingenti dangora gnies aestiya relinquunt

Thracia, qauin tepido permutant Strymona Nilo.

Ordimbus yariia per nubila texitnr ales

Litsra, pennanunqiie notia ioseribitnr A«r.— Claud. B. O. 47S.

68 ISLANDS OF GREECE.

Thebe is no country attended by snch a cerise
of Islands as Greece. Her seas are, literally, ' cre-
bris freta consita terris.' It would be endless and
unprofitable to enumerate them all; but there are
not a few which ought to be familiar to every student
and every reader of the classics. Some of these are
in the Ionian Sea, off the western side of the Grecian
triangle ; but the great majority are on its eastern
side and in the Aegean.

I. Of the former class are, 1. Corcyra (Corfti),
thought to be the Homeric Scheriay the island of the
Phaeacians, where lived the suitors of Penelope

< In cute cnranda plus aequo operata juventus :'
2. Ithacaj the home of Ulysses, which, though it was
' in asperrimis saxulis^ tanquam nidulua^ affixa^ he
preferred to immortality in the brighter island of
Calypso :^ 3. Zacynlhis (Zaate) nemoroaay as Virgil
calls it, a colony from which is said to have peopled
and given name to Sagimtum: 4. Off the west
coast of Peloponnesus the rocks called Strophades
(Strivali), the haunts of the harpies.**^ To the south

^ Cic. DB Ob. I. 44. Cicero here aUudes to what Ulysses says
(Odtss. E. 219),

AxXa »«/ ttf ihktt, »eu aXitfMU nfAuret iravrtt

Ot»»i$ r iX.hfiti9tti, xms V0frtfit«p nfitat^ ti%ri»i ;
coupled with the words of Telemachus, (Odtss. A. 605),

Ey ^ lLi»Kif our a^ i^ofMs iv^us ovr* Tt Xuft^v,
a Terse which Horace also refers to when he says,

Hand male Telemachus, proles patientis Ulyssei,

' Non est aptus equis Ithace locus, ut neque pknis

Porrectus spatiis, neque multae prodigus herbae.^ — £p. i. 7. 41.
'^ StrophSdes Graio stant nomine dictae

Insulae lonio in magno, quaa dira Celaeno

Harpyiaeque colunt aliae. — Aen. hi. 210.

ISLANDS OP aREECE. 69

of the Laconian Promontory MdUa was OytMra^ an
island sacred to Venus ; still farther south is Gre-
ta^ of old, lxaTO|iiroXi; ; but of its hundred cities'*
the only three known to fame in classical times
were Onosausj the capital of King Minos, Oortynky
and Cydoniaj all three famed for archery.'' Of its
mountains, Ida was the loftiest, and on Dicte Jupi-
ter was said to have been reared, and fed upon honey
and the milk of the goat Amalthea. The sea round
the island was called Creticum,^

II. Of the islands lying to the east of Greece and
in the Aegean Sea, we shall name first those worthy
of mention which are situated to the north of the
38th parallel of Latitude. They are,

1. Euboea, an island stretching 150 miles along
the coast of Boeotia and Attica, and approaching
80 near the continent in the channel called Eurl-
pasj that a bridge is said to have been at one
time thrown across. On this channel was the chief

** Greta Jovis magna in medio jacet insula ponto,
Mons Idaeos ubi et gentis cunabula nostrae : (i. e. Trojanae)
Centum urbes habitant magnasyuberrima regna. — Aen. hi. 1 04 .

Nunc age, natoras apibus quas Jupiter ipse
Addidit expediam : pro qua mercede canoros
Curetom Bonitus crepitantlaque v^estk secutae
Dictaeo caeli regem pay^ sub antro. — Georo. it. 149.

Jovis incunabula Creten. — Ot. M. yiii. 99.

centum nobilem Cretam urbibus. — Hob. £poi>. 9. 29.

^ Horace speaks of the ' cahimi spicula Gnossii/ Ox>. T. 15. 17, and
of < tela Cydonio arcu/ On. iv. 9. 17 ; and Lucan (iii. 136), says,
nee Eois pejor Gortyna sagittis.

^ Musis amicus, tristitiam et metus
Tradam protervis in Mare Creticum
Portare ventis !— Hor. Od. i. 26. 1.

70 ISLANDS OF aREECE.

city of the island, Chalcisy opposite to Aulis in Boe-
otia. In doubling GaphdreuSj a promontory at the
south-east extremity of Euboea, the Grrecian fleet on
its return from Troy was overtaken by a storm,
which partly destroyed and partly dispersed it
What the Ghreeks suffered in their way homeward,
says Diomed one of the sufferers, ^scit triste Minervae
Sidus, et Euboicae cautes, ultorque Caphareus,'—
Aen. XI. 260 ; and Ovid, in allusion to the same

disaster, says, ' quicunque Capharea ftigit,

Semper ab Euboicis vela retorquet aquis.'

2. Samothrdcej where the Coiybantes practised
the rites and mysteries of CybSle.

3. Lemnos, an island sacred to Vulcan, for the
reason stated in the following lines of Milton, —

in Ausoman land

M«n callM him Mnldber ; and how he fell

From heav'n they fifthled, thrown by angry Jove

Sheer o'er the chrystal battlements : from mom

To noon he fell, from noon to dewy ere,

A summer's day; and with liie setting sun

Dropt from the zenith like a falling star.

On LemnoB th' Aegean isle* — Milt. Pab. L. i. 7Z9,^

4. Tenedosj an island in sight of Troy and, though
small, not to be omitted, since Virgil pronounces it
' notissima £amft Insula; ' and Homer makes Chryses,

'^ In the aboTe passage Milton imitates (may we not say im-
proves upon 1) the following lines of Homer : —

«««'«'•«■«» in Aii^iiy.— II. a. 591.
Milton's paraphrase of the words tr»y S* nf^»f And »eiitrtf»9 »
worthy of all praise.

CYCLADES. 71

in his prayer to Apollo, compliment the god upon
his reigning bravely over it : Teve8oto xe i<pt avaooei^.
— Hiad, A. 38.

5. Directly south is Leahosj b. pi. of Alcaeus and
Sappho, the two great lyric poets of Greece.*®

6. Chios (Scio), one of the seven places which
contended for the honour of giving birth to Homer.
Lord Byron calls him, —

* The blind old man of Sdo's rocky ide**

bat Milton's line is,

< Blind MeUiigeneSf thence Homer calledy'
which expresses the more general belief among the
ancients that he was bom at Smyrna on the river
Mdea. Chios was also noted for its wines.^

The numerous islets in the Aegean, in Latitudes
lower than 38*^, are generally classed under two de-
nominations, Ctfclddes and Sporades,

L The CtcladeSj a group which cluster (ev xweXci))
round Delos^ — ^that floating island which Neptune
fixed with his trident as a resting place for Latona
to give birth to ApoUo and his twin sister Diana.

^ Utram(iue saero digna silentio

Mirantur Umbrae dicere. — Hob. Od. ii. 13. 29.
^ Sermo lingud oondnnus utr&que

Snavior^ ut Ohio nota si commista Falemi est —

Hob. Sat. 1. 10. 24.

positis intas Chii yeterisque Falemi

Mille cadis. — Hob. Sat. ii. 3. 115.
^ Delos, jam stabili reyincta terrae,

Glim purpnreo mari natabat,

£t moto levis hinc et inde yento

Ibat fluctibus inqnieta smnmis.

Hox illam geminis Dens cateDis,

72 SP0KA1>£&

Of this gmi^tbe most noted, wtbsxDdos^ were,
L Farm J funed fiir its statoaij marble, and the

b. pL of Phidias, the sculptor who made the noblest

use of it

2. Ceosj off the piomontoiy of Sumumj b. pL of
the elegiac poet Simonides.

3. South of I)elo6,.NaaaM, an island that figores in
the history of Bacchus and Aiiadne.

4. and 5. Cryaros t. -roe and Senphos^ places of
banishment for criminals under the Empire.

n. The scattered islets to the east and south-east
of the Cjclades were called from that circumstance
BporadeSj from oicEtpco, spargo. They extended as
£u: E. as IcarUij which took its name, as did the
sea round it, from the fabled &te of Icams, the son
of Daedalus ;^' and as far S. E. as Carpatkos (Scar-
panto) , which in like manner gave to the waters round
it the name of Garpaihium pehgus. Between Icaria
and the continent was Samosj b.-pL of Pythagoras,
and a favourite island of Juno.

Betubning to the Mainland where we left it, at
the Northern boundary of Thessaly, and proceeding
in our tour of the Mediterranean and its cognate
waters, we find ourselves, for a great part of the
journey, in countries where the classical interest is
mainly confined to the line of coast, or, as it is called,
the sea-bord, their interior having been either imper-

Hac alta Gyaro ligavit, Ulae
CoiiBtanti Myconae dedit tenendam. — Petr. Akb.
^ MerauB in alto, Icarus Icariis uomina fecit aquis.— Ov.

MACEDONIA. 78

fecdy known to the ancients, or aeldom alluded to
in tibeir extant writings. Hence it is, that in these
countries tibiere is little worthy of note to the classi-
cal student, beyond the stripe of land on which the
Greeks planted colonies and where theGxeeklanguage
was spoken. To this sea-bord, therefore, we shall con-
fine ourselves, unless when the occurrence of a large
navigable river shall invite us to explore the more
inland parts of the territory through which it flows.
Even MacedoniAj though reckoned part of Greece,
may be treated according to this rule.

Beginning, then, in our northern progress, at the
40th parallel of Lat. we find along the Macedonian
coast, Fydna^ where Perseus was baffled in his last
effort to save his kingdom firom Boman dominion,
(b. c. 168). Farther North, on a Lake 15 miles firom
the sea, was Pella^ the capital of Macedon, and
b. pi. both of the ' vir Macedo,' Philip, and ^ Philip's
warlike son' the * Pellaeus Juvenis,' Alexander the
Great. Pursuing again the line of coast, we come
to Thessalonica at the head of the Sinus TTiermaicua.
It was to the Christians of this city that St Paul ad-
dressed his two Epistles to the Thessalonians. We
fall in next with three peninsular projections, 1.
PaUenej on the Isthmus of which stood Potidaeay and

** Fertur PcHaeus Eonm

Qui domuit Porum cum prospera saepe Pbilippi

Audiret, laetos inter flevisse sodales,

Nil sibi Yincendum patris virtute relinqui. —

Claud. Cons. Hon. iv. 574.
Unus Pellaeo juveni non sufficit orbis :
Aestnat infelix angusto Hmite mundi, ^

Ut Gyarae clausus scopulis parvaque Seripho. — Jut. x. 168.

74 GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON GREECE.

a little to the norths Olynthusy places familiar to the
readers of Demosthenes: 2. Sithonta:^ and S.Ackj
across the isthmus of which, 12 stadia broad, Xerxes,
as we are told, cut a canal for a passage to his fleet^
At the south end of Acte is AthoSy a mountain so
lofty that, according to Pliny, it projects its shadow
on Lemno8y (87 miles distant), when the sun is set-
ting ahout the time of the summer solstice.^^ As
we approach the mouth of Strymon the boundary
of Macedonia, we find Staglray b. pL of Aristotle,
who is hence sometimes spoken of as ^ the Sta-
girite.' In the country that lies between the riyeis
Strtfmon and Nestusy at some distance from the sea,
was the field of Philippij where the decisive battle
was fought between Octavian (afterwards Augustus)
and Marc Antony on the one side, and Brutus and
Cassius on the otiier, B.O. 42, A.n.C. 711.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ON GREECE.

The Chain of Pindus, of which we have already
spoken as shirmg the waters that fall into the Ae-
gean fix>m those that fall into the Ionian sea, has

^ Bnitkomiva Ib used by Horace and Ovid as ajmonymooB with
Thradan, thus, * Memphin carentem Sithonid niye.' — Hoa. ; and
' Brachia Sithom& candidiora niye.* — Ot.

^ * Velificatas A^i is cited by Juvenal (Sat. z.) as one of the
fables of Grecian history ; yet is is said there are still traces of the
excavation.

47 ingenti tellurem proximus umbra

Vestit Athos, nemommque obscurat imagine pontom. —

Stat. Th. v. 4J.

BASINS OF GREECE. 75

numerous lateral branches, wUcli on the eoit side
go off nearly at right angles, like ribs from the spine ;
Buch are the mountains of Argolis, of Attica, and
those which form the northern and southern boun-
daries of Thessalj; while on the west side these
offsets are disposed in ridges nearly parallel to Pin-
dus itself.

The lateral branches which are on the ecut side of
PiNDUS inclose a great number of bassinsy the most
remarkable of which are as follows, beginning from
the North:—

1. The basin of the Strymon, including the Ma-
cedonian Plain of Serres, distinguished by the fer-
tility of its soil and the abundance of its products,
particularly of cotton.

2. The basin of the Peneus, forming the country
of Thessaly. Being nearly circular, and not open-
ing wide to the sea, like most other basins, it has
every appearance, as already stated, of having once
been a great lake, whose waters were at last dis-
charged, either by the sudden disruption, or by the
gradual wearing down, of the narrow ravine called
tiie Vale of Tempe.

3. The valley of the Sperchius, inclosed by the
mountain ranges of Othrys and Oeta.

4. The basin of the northern Cephissus, which in-
cludes a great part of DORIS and Boeotia. The
river arriving at low and spungy ground spreads
out into the lake CopdtSy now Topolias, whose waters
find their way to the Aegean Sea by subterranean
passages, (xaTa6o6pa).

5. The basin of the Alpheus in the Peloponnesus,

76 MOUNTAINS AND

though the course of the river Is westward, may be
enumerated as a fifth. The Alpheus, rising on the
confines of Laconia, collects in its course all the
streams produced in the interior summits and side»
of the mountain chain that encircles Arcadia.

The basins on the west side of PiNDUS, are longer
and narrower, and, owing to the lay of the moun-
tain ridges, extend generally in a north-east and
south-west direction. In Greece Proper are the
basins of the Achelous and Evenus : those farther
to the north are less memorable ; but for beauty of
scenery at least, are well worthy of being more ftilly
explored than they have hitherto been.

The Mountains of Greece are almost entirely lime-
stone, which assumes the shape, in some places, of
long, sharp, continuous ridges ; in others of round
craggy summits, with strata highly inclined. It is
to this physical conformation of the soil and surface
of Greece that she owes many of her natural features
and peculiarities ; — such as, the numerous caverns,
fountains, katahotkra or under-ground river courses,
hot springs, stalactitic incrustations, and gaseous ex-
halations, which, among a people of lively fapcy and
abounding with traditionary story, served to nourish,
if they did not give birth to, much of the popular
superstition and beautiftd mythology of the Greeks.

The height of the principal Mountains has not
been accurately ascertained. — ^Orbelus, now Argen-
taro, is covered with perpetual snow, and must there-
fore, being in the latitude of 42**, have at least 8000
feet of perpendicular elevation. The range of Pin-
dus is considerably lower, probably firom five to six

PLAINS OP GREECE. 77

thousand feet at the highest. Mount Athos rises to
the height of 4350 English feet.

The Rivers of Greece, with the exception of those
that form the basins enumerated and some of their
tributaries, are of short course, and often little more
than winter torrents (xet|Jta^poi), whose channels are
dry in summer. Such, for example, is the femed
Bissus at Athens, [quanto ricco d'onor, tanto povero
d'acqua].

A distinguishing feature of Graecia Propria and
Peloponnesus, and one which had a considerable in-
fluence in the first moulding of its political condition,
is the firequent occurrence of rich plains, overlooked
and commanded by abrupt insulated rocks rising
m the middle or at one end of them, and bounded
at no great distance by mountains. These plains
and natural fortresses, presenting facilities for sub-
sistence, defence, and retreat, attracted population,
and encouraged the forming of small independent
communities. Such were Thebes, Argos, Messene,
and Corinth.

There are some remarkable insulated rocks called
Meteora, near Oomphi in Thessaly.

The mean temperature of Athens is probably 64°.
The extremes observed there during four years, were
104° and 28° Fahr. At Tripolitza, in the centre of
Morea, in the same latitude as Seville, the thermo-
meter has been observed as low as 16° Fahr., and
the ground has been seen covered with snow for
six weeks together, and as late as the month of
February.

Historical Epochs. — Gbeece, during the earlier

78 HISTORICAL EPOCHS

ages, had no common appellation. Of the names
of tribes nsed in a sense more or less extensive by
the poets, in imitation of Homer, such as Argivi,
Pelasgi, Achivi, Danai, the last is perhaps the most
frequent. Hellas, (inhabitants Hellenes), was at
first the name of a district in Thessaly, (vid. Horn.
H. II. 681) ;** but hj degrees it acquired a more en-
larged signification, so as to comprehend Graecia
Propria and Thessaly, and sometimes Peloponnesus
also ; and at last, in a still wider and looser sense,
Epirus, Acamania, Macedonia, and even, but im-
properly, niyricum and Thrace.

1. The first great epoch in the annals of Greece
is the long period of the Heroic and Homeric ages,
amidst the fabulous obscurity of which there are a
few prominent points of authentic history. Such,
for example, are two events which were the princi-
pal means of civilizing Greece, — the establishment
of the Amphictyonic Council, and the institution of
the Olympic Games. The Council of the Amphic-
TTONS, the earliest representative body of which we
have any record, consisted of deputies from a num-
ber of small states, who met to settle disputes among
themselves, and to consult for mutual defence against
common enemies. They met twice a year at An-
theh, near Thermopylae ; afterwards the vemal
meeting was held at Delphi. The general meeting
of the Greeks at OLTMPiAy every fifth year, was not
less distinguished by the celebration of games and

^ Yet Aristotle makes Hdlat the district about DodCna and the
river AekdduB.

OP GREECE. 79

religioufl ceremonies, than hj giving publicity to
works of genins and whatever it concerned the scat-
tered members of the Greek nation to know — such
as treaties between the several states. It thus sup-
plied, in some degree, the want of a common capital,
more particularly after the institution of the Delphi-
an, Isthmian, and Nemean Games, all of which being
celebrated also every fifth year, and no two the same
year, secured a general festival every summer, ac-
companied with an armistice, which enabled all to be
present who had a mind. These bonds of connection
were farther strengthened by the early character for
truth and sanctity acquired by the Oracle of Delphi,
which bound all the Greeks together by the tie of a
common temple and a common worship.

2.^ The second epoch comprehends 1. the rise of the
Greek Republics ; 2. the mutual jealousies and petty
wars among the different states, which gave alternate
supremacy to Athens and Lacedaemon ; and 3. the
two invasions of the Persians, that which led to the
battle of Marathon, and that under Xerxes, which
ended , in the sea-fight of SalSmis. — This period
carries us down to the 83d Olympiad, B.C. 459,
when Athens under Pericles reached the summit of
her greatness and glory, — an era nearly contempo-
raneous with the fall of the Decemviri at Home, and
the establishment of the laws of the Twelve Tables,
A.u.C. 302.

3. The third epoch, beginning with the golden
age of Athens, includes the history of Greece down
to the defeat and capture of the Athenian fleet at
Aegospotami by the Spartan Lysander, B. c. 405.

80 ANTIQUITIES.

This includes the twenty-seven years of the Pelo-
ponnesian war.

4, A period of sixty-six years carries us on, — ^firom
the demolition of the fortifications of Athens and the
establishment of the Thirty Tyrants which followed
the battle of Aegospotami, — ^to the battle of Chae-
roriea in Boeotia, B.C. 338, which gave Philip of
Macedon the entire command of Greece. This pe-
riod comprehends the events which led to the peace
of Antalcidas, b. c. 386, and the political rise of
Thebes, with its short-lived pre-eminence in Greece,
firom the battle of Leuctra to that of Mantinea.

5. A fifth period ex:tends from the battle of Chae-
ronea to the final submission of Greece to the Boman
yoke, after the taking of Corinth by Mummius, A.U.
607, B.C. 146.

From this time Greece followed the fortxmes of the
Eepublic and Empire of Home, till the taking of
Constantinople by the Turks, a.d. 1453 : and since
then it has been in bondage to them till the insur-
rection of 1820. Subsequent events led to the estab-
lishment of a kingdom of Greece, comprehending
the Peloponnesus and Graecia Propria, under a prince
of the House of Bavaria.

Antiquities, — Some curious specimens of the co-
lossal architecture called Cyclopian, much more an-
cient than the classical times of Greece, stiU remain
at Mycenae, Argos, Tiryns, &c. : it is rude in its
form and gigantic in its dimensions, and probably
the work of the same people, who have left still more
numerous and striking examples of it in Italy. Of
the classical age, the remains are principally temples,

ATHENAE. 81

and the most remarkable of these are in and about
Athens.*' On the Acropolisj are still to be found
the ruins of the Bropylam^ the Parthenon or Temple
of Minerva, that of Victory, the united Temples of
Neptune, Erechtheus, and Minerva Polias, built on
the spot where the contest between Minerva and Nep-
tune was supposed to have taken place ; the Pan-
droaetofij in honour of PandrSsos, daughter of Ce-
crops. On the plain below the Acropolis, the Temple
of Theseus, Theseion; and near it, the comparatively
modem Arch of Hadrian, and the Temple of Jupiter
Olympius, Olympieionj begun by PSsistratus, and
dedicated 700 years after by the Emperor fiadrian.
In the city of Athens and its suburbs, the most
remarkable points were, the Areopagus ; the Pnyx^
where the assemblies of the people were held ; the
Theatre of Bacchus ; the Ceramlcua^ including the
Agora or Forum; Prytaneum; ' the Schools of an-
cient sages,' viz. the Lyceum of Aristotle ; the Aca-
deMia of Plato ; the Portico called 2Toa IXoixiXtj, in
Latin, JbectZe, where Zeno the Stoic taught ; and Gy-
imargesj frequented by Antisthenes and the Cynics.*^

^ Exomata eo genere operam eximie terra Attica, et copi& do-
aestiGi tnarmorifl et ingeniis artificum« — Lit. zxxi. 26.

^ Selected passaget iUAUtratvoe o/Athem, referred to (Up, 59.

Illae omnium doctrinarmn inTentrioes Athemie, in qnibns fomma
dicendi vis et inrenta est et perfecta. — Cic. de. Ok. i. 4.

Adsunt Aihenienses, mide humanitas, doctrina, religio, frnges,
jura, leges, ortae atque in omnes terras distribntae putantnr ; de
qnoram urbis possessione, propter pnlchritudinem, etiam inter deos
certamen fiiisse proditum est : quae vetostate ea est, ut ipsa ex
•686 snos dyes gennisse dicator, et eorum eadem terra parens, al-
trix, patria dicatnr : auctoritate autem tanta est, ut jam fraetum

a

82

VI.

1 Tebacia.

On dOssing the Ne$tu» — ^at one tiine the eastern
limit of Macedonia — ^we find onrselveB in Thrace,
a country, the coast of which extended from the
Nestua along the shores of the Aegeauj the JSelles-
pontj the Propontis^ the Thracian Bosporus^ and the
Euadne Sea, aa far north as Mt Haemus, which was

prope ao debilitatum Graeciae nomen hujns urbis laude nitator. —
Cic. PRO 5lacco. 26.

MoTemur enim, nescio quo pacto, locis ipris, in qnibns eorom
qao0 diligimus ant admiramur adsunt yestigia. Me quidem ipsae
illae nostrae Athenae non tarn operibus magnificis exqniritisqiie
antiquoram artibus delectant, quam recordatione summorum Tiro-
ram, ubi quisque habitare, ubi sedere, ubi disputare sit soUtos :
BtodiQseque eomm etiam seprdora contemplor.— Cic. db Lboo. ii. 1.

Coelicolas, telloa quibns hoipUa semper Athenae. —

St. Th. XII. 500.

Behold

Where on ih* Aegean shore a diy stauds^
Built nobly, ptire the air, and light the soil,
Athens, the eye of Greece, mother of arts
And eloquence ; natiye to famous wits.
Or hotpUabUf in her sweet recess,

Gtyor suburban, studious walks and shades^ — ^Mil.P.R.it.237.
Ancient of days ! august Athena 1 where.
Where are thy men of might ! thy grand in soul !
Gone ! — glimmering through the dream of things that were.
First in the race that led to Glory's goal,
They won, and pass'd away ! Is this the whole f
A schoolboy's tale, the wonder of an hour !
The warrior's weapon and the sophist's stole
Are sought in Tain, and o'er each mouldering tower.
Dim with the mist of years, gray flits the shade of power.—

Btboh, Ch. Har. C. II. 2.

COAST OP THEACE. 83

its northern boundary. Theacb is represented hj
the ancients as a ragged, cold, and savage country,
and was therefore regarded among them as a favonrite
and fit residence for the god of war.**^

Along the searbord from the Nestns eastward, we
come upon Abderay which, though proverbial for the
stupidity of its inhabitants, was nevertheless the b. pL
of Democritus — a sage who shewed more wisdom in
laughing at the follies, than his brother philosopher
of Ephesus did in weeping over the vices of man-
kind, (vide Juv. X. 282, &c.)

Farther east, we reach the mouth of HmbbuSj a
river on whose banks the poets feigned that Orpheus
was torn in pieces by the Bacchants, and his head

thrown into the stream.** Few rivers out of Italy

. ^

"^ Mayolrs, nubifero seu tu procnmbis in Haemo,
Sen te cana gela Rhodope^ seu remige Medo
Sollicitatus Athos^ mu caligantia nigris
IHciboB Pangaea tenent, accingere mecam,
£t Thracas defende toos. — Claud, in Ruf. i. 334*

Qualis apud gelidi cum flumina concitas Hebri
Sanguineus Mayors cHpeo increpat^ atque forentea
Bella moTens inunittit equos : illi aequore aperto
Ante NotoB Zephyrumque volant, gemit nltinia pnlatt
Th&aca pedum. — ^Vibo. Abn. xii. 38L
Enchanting sheU 1 . . . •

On Thracia^s hills the Lord of War

Has curbed the fury of his car,
And dropt his thirsty lance at thy command.^^

Gray — Pbogbess of Pobbt.
^ What could the Muse herself that Orpheus bore —
The Muse herself 1 — ^for her enchanting son,
Whom uniyersal nature did lament
When, by the rout that made the hideous roar.
His gory visage down the stream was sent,
Down the swift Hebrus to the Lesbian shore !— Milt. Ltc.

84 COAST OF THRACE AND

and Greece are more frequentlj alluded to in the
Classics than the HebruM.^

Next comes the Thracian peninsula called Cher-
8one8U8j on the eastern side of which is the strait
named EeUeaponiuSj a strait so narrow at one part as
to have been swum across^ — ^in the fabulous ages of
Greece by Leander^ — and in the present century by
Lord Byron. The Hellespont widens into the sea-
lake called PropoTdiSj in which were the islands of
Cyz\cu8 and ProamnesuSy and, at the site of Byzan-
iiwm^ it contracts again into that which was called
the Thracian Bosporus (Strait of Constantinople),
which, after keeping the two continents narrowly
asunder for a considerable space, opens out again
into Pontm Euamvs (the'Euxine or Black Sea),
At the northern extremity of the Strait where it
widens are situated some rocky islets, which seemed
to Jason and his Argonauts, as they approached
them through the windings of the Bosporus j to moTe
and come into collision with each oflier, and were

« e, g, in jugiB

Exsomnis stapet Evias
Hebrum proepidensy et ni^ canclidam

Thracen, ac pede barbaro
Lugtratam Rhodopen. — Hoa. Od. in. 25, 9.
Horace aaks his friend Julius Floms^ —
Thracane tob, Hebmsque tenet nivali oompede yinctus,
An freta vidnas inter currentia turres*
An pingues Ajnae campi coUesque morantor \ — Hon. Ep. i. 3. 8.

** per angustaa vectae male yirginis nndas

Seston Abyden& separat urbe fretam ;
Quaque tenent ponti Byzantia littora fauces,
Hie locus est gemini janua rasta maris. — Ot. T&ist. i. 1 0. 27.
* The Helletpont, flowing between Sestoa and Abydos.

OF MOESIA. 85

hence named ^mplegdldea (from oo|i9i:Xi]oao), concu-
tio). These rocks were also called Cyaneae (xooveot),
from their dark or deep purple colour in the dis-
tance.'* At this point we commence our tour of the
Black Sea ; and turning to the lefty that we may
continue, as we have all along done, to keep our
right shoulder to the sea, we pass Salmydessus^
on our way to ApoUonia^ one of the Milesian co-
lonies, where was a statue of Apollo, 30 cubits
high, which Lucullus transferred to the Capitol at
Eome.**

Then winding round the eastern extremity of Mt
Haemus (still called Cape Emineh), we enter Moih
sUy and half way between Cape Emineh and the
southern mouth of the Danube, we find the site of
Tomi (plur. v. Tomia^ sing, fern.), — a name said to
have been derived from Te|ivu>, seco (TSTOfJia), for the
reason assigned by Ovid in the lines quoted below.*^
This was the place of Ovid's banishment, where he
wrote the Fasti, Tristia, and Epistolae ex Ponto,
and where he ended his days. His name survives
in a town on the spot called Ovidopol. As we go

K«X;^4w If «?!«» »tmn»s 'SvfiitXtiyaimf* — EURIP. MlD. I*

ooncurrentia saxa

Cyaneas^— Jut. zy. 19.
"^ Est in Gapitolio Apollo, translatuB a M. Lucullo ex Apollonia,
Ponti urbe, xxx cubitomm, (^umgeiitui talentis factos. — Plin. Nat.
Hist. xxx. c. 7.
'^ Sed vetns huic nomen, poait&que antiquiiu urbe,
Constat ab Absyrti caede fuiflse, loco.
Inde Tomis dictus locus hie, quia fertur in ill6
Membra soror fratris consecuiase sui. — Or. Trist. hi. 9. 5.

86 GOUBSE AND BASIN

north we encounter the months of Banubius or
Ister.^

Haying reached the Danube, the largest river in
Entope, we shall follow it as our guide in taking a
rapid survey of the countries comprehended in its yast
basin* It rises in Mona Ahudba^^ in the Schwartz-
wald (Black Forest), and flows first through the
country of the Vinddici^ between which and the
Alps, but stOl in the basin of the Danube, dwelt the
people called Bhaeti.^ It next forms the northern
boundary, the Alps being the southern, of Nortcum,
a district abounding in iron and steeL*^ As the
Danube proceeds, it forms the northern boundary
of Pannontaj a country which extended southward to
the confines of Illyricum and took in the whole
course and basin of the SavtLS (Save), till that tribu-
tary fells into the Danube at Singidunumj Belgrade.
After this junction, the Danube throughout the rest
of its course forms the northern boundary of MoESUj
the southern being the chain of Mts Orlilus and
Ea£mu8j which separate it firom Macedonia and
Thrace.

North of the lower course of the Danube lay the

^ Stat vetofl urbs, ripae yidna IniioiniiiiB IstrL — Ov. PoiiT.i.8. 1 1.
Ipse, pap^fero qui non angnstior amne,

Miscetor vasto mnlta per ora freto,
Caenileos ventis latioes durantibus, Ister
Congelat, et tectis in mare Berpit aquis^^ — Ov. Tr.iii. 10.27.
'* Abnoba mona Istro pater est — Ayibn. Orb. Descr. 437.
^ y id^ Rhaeti bella sab Alpibus
Drasum gerentem, et yindeUci. — Hor. Od. it. 4. 17.

'^ irae, quas neqne Norieus

Deterret ensis, nee mare naufragum< — Hoa. Od. i. 16. 9.

OF THE DANUBE. 87

eonntrjof DaciAj extending indefinitelj among the
Carpatliian Mountains and the courses of Tihiacua (the
Theiss), Porata (the Pruth), and Tyras (the Dnie-
ster) , all tributaries of the Danube. The * conjurato
descendens Dacus ab Istro' (Virg. Georg. ii. 497)
was a formidable enemy of imperial Eome.^ With
a view to effect the conquest of Dacia^ the Emperor
Trajan built a bridge over the Danube^ and his sub-
sequent victories were recorded on the Trajan Pillar,
which is still standing in Borne.

As we pursue our journey along the shore
north of the Danube, where dwelt the barbarous
tribes Oetm^ Gelont, and SauromataeY. Sarmataey —
the^ juncta pharetratis Sarmatis ora Getis' of Ovid,
—we meet with no object of greater classical inter-
est than the embouchures successively of the 2k/rasy
the HypontSy and the Borysthenes^ till we reach Tavr-
rta V. Ghersonesus Tawnca^ now called Crimea, a
peninsula somewhat larger than the Peloponnesus,
and of considerable beauty and fertility. Next
comes PcHus Maeotis^ ' the Tauric Pool' of Milton
(Par. Eeg. iv. 79), which is formed by the influx of
Tanais (the Don) and connected with the Euxine
by the Bosponts Oimmertvs (Strait of Kaffa).

' Paene occupatam seditionibus
DeleTit nrbem Dacus et Aethiops ;
Hie classe formidatus, ille
Miasilibus melior sagittis. — Hon. Car. hi. 9, 13.
Frigidus a Rostris manat per compita rumor :
QuicDnque obyius est me consulit : ^ bone (nam te
Scire, deos quoniam propius contingis, oportet)
Num quid de Dacis audisti V — Hob. Sat. ii. 6. 50.

88 NORTH COAST OP

Proceeding eastward from this Strait, we come
in sight of what Milton calls the ^ Hyrcanian cliffs
Of Caucasus, and dark Iberian dales/ (Far.B.iii.31).
These are found to be in the country betwixt the
Euxine and Caspian Seas, which many ethnolo-
gists regard as the primitive seat of the finest type
of the human species. Our course along the shore
of the Euxine brings us, at its farthest point east, to
the river and town of PhaaiSy the city of uEetes
(AtujTTfj;) king of Colchis^ and father of Medea, names
intimately connected with the myth of the Argo-
nautic expedition under Jason, the date of which is
reckoned anterior even to the Trojan war. The im-
portation into Europe of the pheasant, Phamana (sc.
avis) is thought to have been one of the fruits of
this expedition.

We have now reached the most eastern point of
the Mediterranean waters. In continuing our circuit
of the Ei^xine, the coast begins soon to trend west-
ward ; and, as we proceed along its southern shore,
we find ourselves on the northern coast of the
Peninsula of AsiAy to which, in times later than the
classical, was added the epithet Minor.

On this coast, from the mouth of the Phaaia to
the SympUg&des whence we started on our circuit, the
towns and localities of interest are the following : —

1. The town Trapezus -untisj a Greek settlement
of great antiquity, which, under the modem form of
Trebizond, was a place of considerable note under
the Eastern Empire.

2* GerdsuSy whence Lucullus transplanted the tree
which bears its name in Latin, and which appears in

ASIA MINOR. 89

yariously altered shapes in modem tongues^ such as
kersch, cerise, cereza, cherry.

3. The mouth of the river Thermodon, whose ba-
sin and Town Themiscyra were assigned as the dwell-
ing-place of the febled race of female warriors called
Amazons, (from a priv. and |iaCo<;, mamma).*'

4. The river Halya^ eastern boundary of the Ly-
dian kingdom of Croesus, the crossing of which
proved Jfatal to him in his contest with Cyrus king
of Persia."

5. Sinopey on a peninsula that juts into the sea,^
Baid to have been as old as the Argonautic expedi-
tion, at one]|time capital of the kingdom of Pontus,
till taken],by LucuUus ; and b. pL of Diogenes the
Cynic.

6. Carambi8y a promontory opposite to another in
the Crimea called Griumefxypon (ram's forehead), at
the distance of 150 miles across the Euxine.

7. Heradeay — sumamed Pontica to distinguish it
from numerous cities so called in the ancient world,
— chief town of the Mariandyni^ and said like the
rest to have been founded by Hercules. East of it
was a village which served as its port, called Aconae
(Axovat), whence the poisonous plant ^conift^m, which
grew.there in abundance, was said to have received
its name.**

*" Amazonidum lanatis bellica peltis

ThermodontiaciB tumui layatur aqnis. — Propbbt. hi. 7. 16.

Foemineae, Thermodon^ cognite tormae!— Ot. P. iv. 10.

•* Et Croeso fatalis Halys^-LucAN, in. 272.
^ AsBjrrios complexa sinus stat opima Sinope. — Val. Fl. ▼. 110.
•• Athenaeus, (6. iii. c. 29), states the fact on the authority of
Theopompus, the Chian historian ; though h« himself confounds

90 NORTH COAST OF ASIA MINOR.

8. The month of the Sangarius^ v. Sag&ria^ which
rises in Mt IHndymvs.^

All these localities are in the proTinces of Asia
Minor called Pontusj Paphlagonia, and Bithynia.

the ^Aconitum' (Monk's-hood or Wolfs-bane) with the eonium,
oieuta, or hemlock. There is a tradition also upon record, that
CerbOTOfl was dragged np by Hercules from the infernal regions
to the top of the adjoining moontain Aconitut, and there, being
unable to bear the beams of the sun, vomited the contents of his
stomach, whence sprang the poisonous herb.

In the Greek Geographical Dictionary of Stephanas Byzanlinus,
there is mention of a small ishmd caQed Ac6ne, fircmting Ckaleedonf
at the entrance of the Thradan Bosporus. It got its name, ae>
cording to Stephanus, from the abimdance of whetstones which it
fumished — h» t« irXfiitt rSv ly nunf ir^»e «»«»«r ittwtffifurmf Xjmu
And it is well known that Tmrkish whetstones are still an article of
commerce and much esteemed.

Strabo makes mention of a people. Aconites (A»«Mrt«), who
lived in caves in the mountainous parts of Kv^y*;, Corsica.

For what I have said in this note, and for being aware that such
places and people existed in ancient times, I am indebted to my
leanied friend, Mr Bell Macdonald of Rammerscales. It may be
some apology for my ignorance on this point, that none of the
three names is to be found either in the voluminous work of Gel-
larius (2 vols. 4to, 2475 pp.), in D'Anville, or in the more recent
treatises on Ancient Geography, Dr Adam^s Summary, the Eton
Compendium, Larpent's Andent Geography, or even in the latest
and fullest of them all, Dr Wm. Smith's Geographical Dictionary.
Neither have they a place in Kiepert^s valuable and well-executed
Atlas of Greece and its Colonies, published at Berlin in 1846.

I have since foimd the Ae6n9€ near Heradea briefly noticed in
one or two instances, but no mention o£ the island, except in Ste-
phanus ; and yet it would seem strange that lis should be wrong
who was bom and brM at Byzantium, within a few hoars' sail of
Chaloedon, near which he places the island.

«7 DifMlyma fundunt

Sangarium, vitrei qui puro gurgite GaJdi

Auetas, Amazonii defertor adostia Ponti. — Claud, in Eu. 362.

WEST COAST OP ASIA MINOR. 91

The other maritime provinces of the peninsula are
six in number. Of these, three are on the Asiatic
shore of the Aegean, viz. 1. MtsiAj including Phry-
gia Minor and the Tboad; 2. Lydia v. Maeonia^
including lONiA, which was the sea-bord of Lydia
and thickly planted with Greek colonies ; and 3.
CABlAy including the district of Doris. The other
eiree are on the Mediterranean. I.LtciA; i.PAM-
PHTLlAj including Pisidia and Isauria; and 3.
GiLiciA. In all these six provinces, there are loca-
lities with whose names and positions every student
ought to be made familiar. For example : —

1. In Mysia it is sufficient to name Troja vel
Ilion^ situated on an eminence between the Simoia
and Scamander, The city was overlooked by Mt
Ida, and itself overlooked the Plain of Troy. Here
also was the river GranlcuSj on whose banks Alex-
ander the Great gained his first victory over Darius,
(b. c. 324).

2. In Lydia flowed the river Hermus and its tri-
butary Piictohia^ both famed for the gold found in
the sand of their channels, and the latter for being the
site of Sardisj^ at the foot of Mt TmoluSy the capital
of Croesus, king of Lydia. A little way S. of the
Hermus was Smyrna^ on the MdeSj -c*w, one. of the
cities which contended for being the birth-place of
Homer ; hence, he is called ^ Smymaeus vates ;' and

M Quid tibi visa Chios, Bullati, notaque Lesbos I
Quid concinna Samos 9 quid Groesi regia Saxdis f
Smyrna quid, et Colophon I majora minorane fama %
Conctano prae campo et Tiberino fluxnine sordent \ —

Hor-Ep. I. 11.

92 WEST COAST OF ASIA MINOR.

the river Meles famished the epithet MelesigSnes,
Among the twelve cities that formed the Ionian
league, besides Smymaj were Teos^^ birth-place of
Anacreon, and BpMsitSj birth-place of the weeping
philosopher Heraclitus, and of the painter Parrha-
sins. It was situated at the mouth of the Caystras
famed among the poets for its swans.''* Farther
South is Mt MycdUy off which the Greeks gained a
signal victory over the Persians, the same day, it is
said, on which Mardonius was defeated at Flataea.
We next cross the Maeandevy v. -dros^ a river of
great length, and so remarkable for its windings aj
to have fiimished an English word descriptive of a

•t The Sdan and'the TeUn muse, (Homer and Anaca^on)

The hero's harp, the lover's lute,
Have found the fame your shores refuse :

Their phice of birth alone is mute
To sounds which echo further west

Than your sires' < IsUuids of the Blest.' {vnr$t ^«»«^ivy).

xXmyytiiif ir^ttutB^tiifrttv, ffMt^tcyu V% tt Xu/Mtt. — Iliad, B. 459-
7 Sic niger, in ripis errat quum forte Caystri,

Inter Ledaeos ridetur corvus olores. — Mart. i. 54. 7.
See also Vise. Aen. vii. 701, and Geok. i. 383.— The fabu-
lous notion, that the dying swan sings its own requiem, has fur-
nished poets both ancient and modem with abundance of allusions
and similes ; with none perhaps more beautiful than the following
from the Tmistia of Ovid : —

Utque jacens ripit deflere Cftystrius ales

Didtur ore suam deficiente necem,
Sic ego, Sarmaticas longe projectus in oras,
Efficio, tacitum ne mihi funus eat. — Ov. Tb. v. 1, 11.

SOUTH COAST OF ASIA MINOE. 93

similar character in other streams.^^ South of the
Maeander^ but still to be reckoned an Ionian city-
was MiletuSj from which went most of the Greek
colonies that fringed the border of the Euxine Sea.^'
It was noted also for its wool/* and was the b. pi.
of Thales^ the earliest, and not the least sagacious
of the Greek philosophers.

3. On the coast of Gabia stood Halicanmaauaj a
city memorable (a&oXoYo;) as the birth-place of the
great historians Herodotus and Dionysius, and for
the sepulchral monument of Mausolus, reared by
his queen Artemisia, the name of which has passed
into a household word in our own and other modem
tongues.^* On the opposite side of the bay stood
OntdoSj where was a statue of VeniLs (' Regina Cntdi
Paphique,' Hor.) reckoned the master-work of Prax-
iteles ; and at the entrance of this bay, mid-way be-
tween Halicarnassus and CnidtiSj lay the island CoSy
b. pi. of the famous physician and medical writer
Hippocrates, and of Apelles, the most celebrated of
Grecian Painters. Cos was noted also for its wines,
and for the manufacture of fine cloth.^* Off the coast

^^ The word is still more widely and metaphorically used in La-
tin as an appellative. Thus, Cicero, in Pis. c. 22, says, ^ Quos
maeandroB quaesisti!'* — ^What quirks, subterfuges, or evasioiia^
have you had recourse to ! See also Virg. Aen. v. 251.
'* Ovid, writing from Tomi, says^ —

Hue quoque Mileto missi venere coloni,
Inque Getis Graias constitu^re domos. — Ov. Tft. iii. 9. 8.

^ Milesia magno

Vellera mutantur. — Viag. Geo. hi. 306.
^* Mausoleum.

^* Horace (On. iv. 13, 13) says to a faded beauty : —
^ Nee Coae referunt jam tibi purpurae.

94 LYCIA — ^PAMFUTLIiu

of Caria is snother island mncli larger and more:
noted than Cos^ viz. Rhodos^ Rhodes^ in the capital
of which, of the same name, was the brazen statoe
of the smi, called Golossuaj 70 cubits high^ which
bestrode the entrance of the harbour.

4. Moving eastward, along the Carian shore, we
enter Lycia^ and pass imder the wooded Cragusj one
of the extremities of Mt TaueuSj and a favourite
resort of Diana.^® Having crossed the Xanthus^ we
arrive at Patdraj the winter residence according to
the poets of Apollo, as Debs (matema) was his isr
vourite dwelling-place in summer.^^ Farther east,
after rounding Ihe Prom. Sacrum^ we find Mens Chi-
maera?^

6. In PamphyliAj the first point of interest is
the town Phaselis^ spoken of by Cicero, Verr. vi.,
cap. 10 ; by Livy, xxxiii. 17 ; and by Lucan, viii.

Nee clari lapidois, tempora qnao semeli
Notis condita f astisy
Inclusit volucris dies.
y« Horace (Od. i. 21) describes her as
Laetam fluviis et nemomm oom&»
Quaecunque ant gelido prominet Algido,
Nigris ant Erymanthi
Sylyis, aut viridis CragL
77 Delius ao Pat&reus Apollo.— Hon. Od. i. 21. 5.

hybemam Lyciam Xan&ique fluenta

Deserit, ac Delon matemam inyisit Apollo. — Abn. it. 14S.

'^ flammisque armata Chimaera. — Asir. ti. 288. '

#-— Chimaera jngo mediis in partibus hircmn.
Pectus et ora leae, candam serpentis habebat^ — Ot.M.iz.646.
The fable of Chimaera probably arose from an active volcano for-
merly existing in Lyda ; and to this day a lambent flame plays
continually in a cavern on the side of a mountain near the andent
Cragus. — See < Becmfofi^i Kcmmania,*

CILICIA. 95

249. North of Phaatlis is Mt Cltmaxy (a spur of Mt
TAU£U8)y which comes so abruptly and perpendicu-
larly upon the shore^ that Alexander's army march-
ed under the cliff breast-high in the water of the
Mediterranean^ which had been driven shore-ward
by an easterly wind.

6. CiLiCiA extends from the eastern limit of Pam-
phylia to the Sirma Issicus and Mt Amdnits, and haa
the mountain chain of Taurtis for its northern boim-
dary* The western portion of Cilicia is rough and
hilly, and was thence called Trachea (tpaxeia, cw-
pera) ; the eastern, being more level and fertile, was
called Oilicta Gampestris (Ttsdta). On the coast of
the latter, as we approach the river GydnvSj we pass
through Soli (SoXot), a place worthy of mention here,
only because, like Maiovdpoc and MaaocoXetov, it has
furnished the English language with a word.^^ We
then come to CydrmSy — ^the river that so nearly
proved fatal to Alexander the Great, — by ascend-
ing which, we arrive at Taravsy the capital of the
province, and classed by Strabo — ^himself a na-^^
tive of Asia Minor — ^with Athens and Alexandria
as a seat of art, science, and refinement. Tarsus
was the birth-place of St Paul. The last town in
Cilicia, situated at the head of the Sinus Issicus j
was Issmy where Alexander gained his second great

^ A colony from Athens settled at Scloiy whose Attic Greek de*
genezated so notoriously, that any Athenian who violated at home
the purity and propriety of Attic speech, was said fokotztJ^M, to
Kieeise, and his ofFence^was called '2»)i§t»i0'fMf, Of the two words,
we have adopted the nomi only, and we apply it sometimes to other
things besides language, as when we say, ' a toUoitm in politics/

96 INLAND PROVINCES OP

victoij oyer the Peisianfl^ and made prisoners of
war the wife, mother, and infant son of Darius. In
this neighbourhood were also the Piflae AmanlcaA
V. -^[desy and Pylae Syriaey narrow passes or gorges
in Amdrmsj the mountain range which rons north-
east from the bay of Issns till it joins Mt TaurvM.
All these localities are frequently mentioned in the
history of Alexander's Expedition into Asia, and in
Cicero's account of his proconsulate in CiUcia, as
given in his own Letters and Dispatches. Fronting
the bay of Issus is GypniSy the favourite island of
Venus, and hence the numerous epithets applied to
the goddess which are derived from towns and tem-
ples therein : such, for example, are Cypria^ Paphiay
Idaluij Amathuntia v. -thusiay and Salamima. The
last epithet is taken from SaldmtSj a town at the
east end of the island, said to have been foimded by
Teucer, who, not being allowed by his father to land
on his native isle Salamis in the Saronic Gulf, when
he returned from the Trojan war, was assured by
the oracle of Apollo ^ Ambiguam tellure novfi, Sala-
mina ftituram,' {Ear. Od, I. 9, 29), andthis was the
Cyprian Salamis.

So much for the maritime provinces of Asia
Minor.

The inland Provinces were : —

1. Phbygia Magnaj in the centre of which was
SynnSda^ noted for its quarries of variegated mar-
ble, which was a costly article of ornamental archi-
. tecture at Bome. In this province, on the confines
of Caria, and not far from the sources of Ma^ander
and its tributary Marsyas^ were also the cities of

ASIA MINOR. 97

Ldodicea and Cohssaej the seats of early Christian
churches, and Celaenaey where mythological history
places the scene of the flaying of Marsyas by
Apollo.

2. Qalatia v. OALLOGBAECiAy (both terms al-
luding to the fieu^t of the invasion and settling there
of a body of Gttllic emigrants), comprehended the
upper portions of the river-basins of Halya and &m-
gariuSj and the cities of PosAnuSj Ancyra (Angora),
and Oordivm. 1. The first of these towns, situated
at the foot of MiDindprnuSj was noted for the worship
of Cybele, and from it was conveyed to Eome the
^sacred stone,' as Livy calls it,^ which was the re-
presentative of that goddess. 2. At Ancyra, a temple
was erected to Augustus during his life-time, which
contained the marble tablet called marmor Ancyra-
mm, on which are recorded his actions and public
services. — The silky hair of the Angora goat is still
prized. 3. <?or(ZiMm, before the invasion of the Gauls,
was the capital of Phrygia, — the city of Gordius,
father of Midas, — ^and famous for the stoiy of the
Gk)rdian knot

3. In Cappadocia, the point of greatest interest
is Mt Argaem, with Maz&ca, the capital of the pro-
vince at the foot of it. The Mountain is calculated
to rise to the height of 13,000 feet above the sea
level. Strabo describes it as covered with perpetual
snow, and seems to give credit to the report that
some travellers, who had reached the top in a clear

•0 B. XXIX, c. u.

98 OBSEBVATIONS ON

isLjy saw at one and the same time, the Euxine and
Mediterranean Seas.

4. West of Cappadocia was the province of ir-
CAONlAy with its capital Iconium^ the scene of the
labours of St; Paul and Barnabas, as recorded in the
Acts of the Apostles.

6. To the N. E. of Cappadocia, lay Ammenia
minor J in which Pompey fomided a city which he
called NiccypSlia. in memory of a decisive victory he
gained there in the Mithridatic war.

OBSERVATIONS ON THE PHYSICAL ASPECTS OP
ASIA MINOR.

The mountain range called Amdnusj forms the
S. E. boundary of Asia Minor, separating it from
Syria, in like manner as the Euphrates and part of
Mt Taurus separate it on N.E. from Armenia major.
The Asiatic peninsula — of which we have done little
more than trace the sea-bord of low rich land that
skirts the shores of the Euxine, Propontis, Aegean,
and Mediterranean Seas — ^is a country little inferior
in size to the Spanish Peninsula, to which, in some
respects, it bears a resemblance. It lies, for example,
between the same parallels of N. Latitude, (36** and
43**) and both present a vast extent of. Table-land
in the interior. In this point of view, it may be
said also to furnish a sample, as it were, or epitome
of the entire continent of Asia, seeing that both
exhibit a central belt of elevated land, abutting on
mountain ranges, which slope downward to the re-
spective seas that form their northern and southern
boundary. In the case of Asia Minor, the Southern

ASIA MINOR. 99

chain is so marked and unintemLpted, that it was
early designated by a general name. AU ancient
geographers agree in calling it Taurus ; but some
trace it eastward from Cape Trogilium and Mt Mycdle
on the Aegean : while Strabo, whose authority is high
in what concerns this peninsula, of which he was
himself a native,®^ makes it commence from aprecipi-
tous and lofty ridge which runs northward fromProm,
Souyrum and Mt Climax in Lycia. Thence making a
sweep to the E., and taking, in one part of its course,
the name of ArUitaurvSy it proceeds in a N.E. direc-
tion until, as it approaches the Euphrates, it sends off
the branch called Amdnus to tbe south-west, and
skirts the course of that river, of which it alters the
direction. Another branch of Taurus runs more di-
rectly E., bounding to the N. the maritime provin-
ces of Pamphylia and Cilicia. The Northern chain
connected with Antitaurus, and running W. parallel
with the Black Sea, is more broken and scattered
than Taurus, and has not therefore been distinguish-
ed by a general appellation, but it may be traced
westward in the successive ranges o^ Paryadres^ OU
gasysy Magaba, DindymuSy the two Olympi and Ida,
The central j?i2feaw, comprehending the four inland
provinces already mentioned, is distinguished by a
number of lakes without issue, most of them salt,
and of rivulets that never reach the sea, — facts which
attest the general levelness of the surface. That
part of Phrygia called anciently KatakecaumSnej {t. e,
combusta), abounds in appearances of scorching and

"^ He was bom at Afnasia, a town on the Irii, a river of Ponius,

100 HISTOEICAL EPOCHS AND

sterility^ which Strabo considers aa indications of
frequent earthquakes and yolcanic eruptions. He
mentions it as a well known historical fact^ that
Mithridates, having directed his march upon Apa-
meay a flourishing city of Phrygia, found it on his
arrival reduced to a heap of ruins by an earthquake ;
and he cautions his reader against rejecting as en-
tirely fabulous the story of Mount Sipylus having
been overturned, seeing that the town of Magnesia
had, in his own time, suffered severely by the same
shock which laid waste Sardes and ten neighbour-
ing cities. The mountains which inclose the cen-
tral plain send off numerous branches, some to the
interior, but most of them towards the surrounding
seas. Hence a multitude of basins and vallies open
at one end to these seas, and shut in at the other by
the heights where the rivers that formed these val-
lies originate. Hence also the irriguousness, ferti-
lity, and picturesque beauly of the belt or fringe of
land that edges the peninsula, and slopes down from
the high moimtains to the sea.

HiSTOEiCAL Epochs. — The Asiatic Peninsula
having never had a separate and independent politi-
cal existence, it will be suflScient to note the most
remarkable events and periods in its history. These
were, —

1. The settlement of the Greek colonies on the
Asiatic coast of the Aegean. The chief Ionian emi-
gration took place about a century and a half after
the Trojan War, and was followed by a long period,
during which the arts of civilized life were carried to
a high degree of improvement in that country : — a

ANTIQUITIES OF ASIA MINOR. 101

fact which is attested by the numerous and splendid
architectural remains and Greek inscriptions that are
found in it.

2. The existence of a kingdom of Lydia, extend-
ing from the Aegean Sea to the Halys, which ter-
minated with the defeat of Croesus by Cyrus, King
of Persia, B.C. 548, A.u. 206.

3. The conquest of the peninsula by Alexander
the Great, A.u. 421, B.c. 332, after it had formed
a part of the Persian Empire for upwards of two
centuries.

4. The Mithridatic War, waged against the Ro-
mans under Sylla, Lucullus, and Pompey, by the
great Mithridates, the seventh king of Pontus of
that name, and which ended in the submission of
Asia Minor to the Romans, (a.u. 689, B.c. 65,) in
whose hands it remained till, in the 15th century, it
was overrun by the Turks, who still possess it.

Antiquities. — Although Asia Minor, especially
the coast of the Aegean, \<ras in ancient times the
seatof many noble cities, adorned with splendid monu-
ments of art, time and barbarism have either entirely
destroyed even the ruins, or left them in such shape-
less, scattered, and mutilated masses, as to convey
but little information. Not only are there no re-
mains of the famous temple of Diana at Ephesus, but
the very site of the town is disputed. The existence
of former civilization is attested by fragments, curi-
ous and interesting indeed, but not singly of impor-
tance enough to be enumerated in so general an out-
line as this. Few are more remarkable than the
inscription in very ancient Greek characters, and the

102 ASIA.

alternate lines reading opposite ways (PoooTpapTj8ov),
found on a block of marble near the Promontory Si-
genm in the Troad : — and the Tabulae Armfranrnj
the six marble tablets already alluded to.

With regard to the vast continent of Asia which
stretches eastward beyond the peninsular portion of
it we have been examining, it was so imperfectly
known to the ancients in the brighter periods of their
literary history, that a few notices are all that is re-
quired in a work intended for the student of the
classics. The great basins of the Euphrates and
Tigris, embracing part of Armenia and of Medu,
and the whole of Mesopotamia, Assyria, Susiana,
and Babylonia, are important in themselves, and
contain points of considerable interest to every scho-
lar. Bo\h these rivers rise in Armenia, the Eu-
phrates in Aius (Mt Ararat) and the Tigris in Ni-
pkdtes, the two eastern terminations of the range of
Taurus emd Anti-Tauru^s; and after a course, the
Euphrates of 1530 miles, the Tigris of 1000, hav-
ing run nearly parallel to each other, they unite
their waters and fall into the Sinus Persicus.

1. Armenia major was chiefly composed of the
basin of the Araxes,^^ a river which rises in Anti-
Taurus, a few miles from one of the soujces of the
Euphrates, and after joining the Cyrus, which is
the northern boundary of Armenia, they flow with

^ IndomitiqaeDahae etpontemindignatas Araxes: (Aem.yiii.728.)
But Statins^ at a later date, intimates the entire subjugation of the
country, when he says, in allusion to Virgil's expression just quoted,
— * patiens Latii.^ pontis Araxes.' — Stat. Sil. i. 4. 79.

ASIA. 103

united stream into the Mare Caspium v. Hyrcanum.
On the left side of the Araxes^ and overlooked by
Mt Ararat on the rightj was the capitar-4rtoa;ato.®*

2. In MesopotamiAj whose name indicates the
nature of a country formed by the alluvial deposits
of the two large rivers that enclose it on either side,
sv jisoo) TCOtaficDv, were Carrhaej memorable for the
defeat and death of Crassus ;^ and Nisibisj on the
tributary Mygdonius^ a frontier city of Imperial
Eome.

3. Assyria is the left side of the basin of the
Tigris during the latter part of its course. On the
river itself stood NiNUSj Nineveh, the metropolis of
the Assyrian Empire. The site and vicinity of this
ancient city have been the scene of recent excava-
tions an<J discoveries, which promise to throw light
upon the early records of Qur race. A little east-
ward were Gaugarnela and Arhehy the scene of the
battle with Alexander which sealed the fate of Da-
rius and of the Persian Monarchy.

4. Babylonia v. Chaldaea occupied the lower
part of the basin of the Euphrates down to its junc-
tion with the Tigris, and onward to its mouth in
the Sirms Persicus. Its most noted localities were
the following : On the Euphrates, and bisected by

** Sic praetextatos peferunt Artaxata mores; (Juv. ii. ult.)
a line in which Juvenal intimates his conviction that the vices
of Rome in his day spread their corrupting influence to the very
extremities of the empire ; the subject of tiie verb referunt being
the youth of those cities that visited Rome.

^ miserando funere Crassus

Assyrias Latio maculavit sanguine Carrhas. — Lucan^ i. 104.

104 ASIA.

it, BabyloNj one of the most renowned among the
cities of remote antiquity.^ In the latest period of
its annals^ it was the scene of the death of Alexan-
der the Great.®* Farther up the river was the plain
of Cunaxa, where the younger Cyrus was defeated
and slain by his brother Artaxerxes ; and whence,
in consequence of that defeat, began the retreat of
the Ten Thousand Greeks described in the Anaba-
sis of Xenophon.

It was among the Chaldeans and Babylonians
that astrology seems to have originated, to which
part of their character frequent allusion is made in
the classics.

The basin of the Choaspesy a tributary of the Eu-
phrates, was the country called Susianaj from its
capital SusAy on the river itself.^

Then follow Persia Proper, Medu^ and Pab-
THiAj often confounded with Persia by the Boman
poets, and the other provinces eastward of that vast
empire of Persia which at one time extended from

•' ubi dicitar altam

Ck>ctiUbiis muris cinxiase Semiramisiirbem. — Ot. Mm. iv. 58.
^" UnoB Pellaeo juveni non suffidt orbis ;
Qunm temen a figulis mnnitam intraverit urbem,
Sarcophago contentiis erit — Jut. x. 168 and 171.
Lucan, remonstrating with patriotio spirit against the insanity of
ciyil wars, has this striking and beautiful passage : —
Quumque superba foret Babylon spolianda tropaeis
Ausoniis, umbr Aque emret Crassus inult&,
Bella gen plaeuit nullos habitura triumphos. — Phabs. i. 10.
^ I oannot do better than refer the reader to what may be truly
eidled a loeui datsieut on the countries which I have briefly touched
upon. It will be found in Milton's Par. Reg. B. iii. at line 269,
&c., and iB too long and too accessible to be giyen here.

ROUTE OF ALEXANDEE THE GREAT. 105 ,

the Indus to the Mediterranean, — an empire found-
ed by the elder Cyrus six centuries before Christ, —
subverted by Alexander the Great at Arbela, nearly
three centuries later, — and broken up into ifragments
among his generals after his death. Instead of going
into detail upon these provinces and peoples, some
of which were unknown by name even to their own
reigning monarch Darius,^ and which have little
interest for the classical reader, except in so &r as
they are connected with the expedition of Alexander
the Great, — we shall conclude this part of our sub-
ject with an enumeration of the principal points in
the progress of the Macedonian conqueror.

In the year 333 B.C., Alexander set out from
Pella, the place of his birth, and marching through
Amphipolis, crossed the Strymon near its mouth,
and the Hebrus ; and in twenty days arrived at Ses-
tos, on the European side of the Hellespont. Aft;er
crossing to Abydos, and visiting the plain of -Troy ,^^
he advanced to the banks of the Gramcus, where he
first encountered and defeated the Persians. The
principal points in his farther progress were the fol-
lowing : — Sardes, capital of Lydia, Ephesus, Mile-
tus, Halicamassus, Fatara, at the mouth of the Xan-
thus, and Fhaselis. Marching round Climax, (one

^ In the nrastering of his forces to oppose Alexander, 'Bactri-
anoe et Sogdianos, et Indos, eeterosque Rubri maris accolas, ignota
etiam ipei gentium nomina, festinatio prohibehat aociri/ — Q. Cur-
nus, B. Tii. c. 4.

^ Alexander, qnum in Sigeo ad Achillis tumulum adstitisset ; O
fortunate, inquit, adolescens, qiii tuae yirtutis Homerum praeco-
nem inveneris. — Cicbbo, pbo Archia.

106 Alexander's route.

of the Bouthem extremities of Mt Taurus)^ he tamed
northward to Celaenae^ Gordium, and Ancyra : and
moving southward again through Cappadocia and
the Pylae Ciliciae, he arrived at Tarsus on the
Cydnus. Thence he marched eastward to Issus,
where he fought and gained a second great battle.

Turning to the south he took Sidon and Tyre, the
latter by assault after a long and difficult siege, and
continued his march to Jerusalem and Gaza ; then to
Memphis, capital of Egypt ; along the coast to Par-
aetonium the western limit of Egypt, and south to
the Temple of Jupiter Ammon, an Oasis in the Li-
byan Desert: Then back to Tyre; forward to Damas-
cus, and, keeping Palmyra on the right, to Thapsa-
cus on the Euphrates. Passing that river, he led his
army across Mesopotamia^ and the Tigris; and at Gatir
garmla fought the third great and decisive battle of
Arlela. The main points of his subsequent and
almost unresisted progress were, Babylon; Sttsa;
Ecbatana, capital of Media; R/lae CaspiaSj Heca-
tompylosj Zadra-Garta^ in Hyrcania, near the south-
east extremity of the Caspian Sea; Artacoana;
Alexandria^ a city founded by the conqueror among
the Ariani; along the river Etymanderj to Arajcho-
sia; thence northward by ParopammiSj through
Bactriana to Bactra on the OxuSy and through Sag-
diana to Maraoanda^ the modem Samarcand, and
northwards to Ja^xartes^ called improperly by some
of the historians of Alexander, the Tanais. This
river was the boundary of SogdiarwLj and of Alex-
ander's progress northward ; in memory of which he
is said to have erected Aleocandri AraCj not far from,

alexandeb's eoute. 107

and in imitation of, the altars of Bacchus, Hercules,
and Semiramis. Returning south by Bactra and
Aomosy he passed the eastern limit of the Persian
Empire at the river CopheSj a tributary, of the Inr
daa. On the banks of the latter, and of its numer-
ous tributaries, Alexander met with a spirited but
ineffectual resistance from PoEUS. At last, being
arrested in his progress by the unwillingness of his
troops to go farther from home, he was compelled to
abandon his purpose of marching eastward till he
should reach the ocean. Turning to the right, there-
fore, he dropt down the Indus ; and from its mouth
directed his retrograde course by Pattdhj along the
coast of Gedrostaj a country bounded to the south by
the Ery threan Sea ; and passing through Paaargadae
and PersepoltSy arrived once more at Babylon, where
he died, in the year of Rome 431, and 323 years
before die Christian era.

108

VIL

SYRIA.

The tract of land which forms the eastern bonndarjr
of the Mediterranean, lying between the 31st and
37th degree of north Latitude, was, in classical timesr,
called Sybia (Supia), and comprehended Phoenicia^
PalaestinAj and Judaea; — ^that is, homMonsAmd'
nu8 and ^nu8 Issicus to the confines dP Egypt, a dis-
tance of 500 miles in length ; in breadth, various,
according as it is more or less encroached upon by
the Arabian Desert.

The physical characteristic of this country is an al-
most continuous chain of mountains stretching ftom
north to south in a direction parallel to the eastern
shore of the Mediterranean, and nowhere far distant
from it. Though it assumes different local appelk-
tions, the chain may be called by the general name
of liibdnvs (the Lebanon of Scripture), and the high-
est part of the range is where it diverges into two
branches, Libdnus and Antilibanus. To that point,
the Hermon of Holy Writ, and the high ground
adjoining may be traced the sources of the three
principal, and indeed only. Rivers of Syria, the
Orontesj whose course is to the north, and the Le-
ontea and JordaneSj which flow southward.

1. The Orontes in the latter part of its course
makes a bend to the west, and passes through a wide

RIVERS OF STRIA, 109

and level valley between Mom Pi&rvua on the north,
which is the termination of Amanns, and Mons Ca-
sius on the south, which may be regarded as the
commencement of the Ltbdnvs chain. Twenty miles
from its mouth, and on its left bank, stood the famous
city of Antiocheiay long the capital of Syria ; and
in its immediate vicinity was "that sweet grove
Of Daphne, by Orontes," (Par. Lost. iv. 272), which
at last became proverbial for luxury and voluptuous-
ness.^ At the mouth was Meltboea^ an island noted
for its traffic in Tyrian purple.*

2. The Leontesy rising at the point of divergence
of Libdnua and AnttltbanuSy flows south through a
widening basin, enclosed between these two ranges,
which, from its physical aspect, the Greeks called
KotXif) {i. e. cava) Zupia, which figures in our maps
as Coelesyria — an appellation corresponding in name
and nature to the application of the Scottish word
'how,' (Anglic^, 'hollow'), as when we speak of
' the How o' the Meams.'

3. JorddneSy the Jordan, springing from Mt Her-
mon, flows almost due south, forming in its course
successively, 1. the Lake Samachonitis ;^ 2. the
Lake Tibenasy known in the New Testament as

^ Hence Jnvenal, BtJgmatimng the yices of Rome, saysy
Jampridem Syrns in Tiberim defluxit Orontes. — iii. 62.
And Propertins speaks of the delight

Orontea crinem perfimdere myrrhl — i. 2. 4.

' VhrgU (Aen. ▼. 2£0) mentions

chlamydem auratam quam plorima circum

Purpura Maeandro duplici Meliboea cucurrit.
* This lake is named by no ancient author but Joeephus. It is
supposed to be the ^ waters of Merom^* of Scripture.

110 COAST OP SYRIA.

' the Sea of Galilee/ or * Gennesareth ;' and 3. the
Locus AsphaltUes or Dead Sea, a bituminous lake
without issue, in which the Jordan is lost.* The
banks of this lake are the lowest inhabited land
known, the surface of the water having been lately
ascertained to be 1312 feet below the level of the
Mediterranean.

About halfway between the head of the Dead Sea
and the Mediterranean, on the brook Kedron, stood
Hierosolyma^JjEMUSALEMytheiaQtro^dliB of Palestine.
On the Syrian side of the Euphrates, where it fonns
the north-east boundary, were SamosStay b. pi. of
Lucian ; and ThapscduSy where there was a ford of
the river, by which Cyrus led his army to Gunaxaj
and which Darius crossed on his way to IssuSy and
Alexander in pursuit of him after the battle.

Having dwelt thus far on the Mountains and Eiveis
of Syria, we now resume our journey along the coast,
proceeding southward from the mouth of the Oron-
tes, in Lat. 36°. In our way to the mouth of the
Leontes, we enter PnOENiciAy and passing the small
but once populous and prosperous island, Aradm^
in Lat. 34°, we arrive at the point

Where smooth Adonis from his native rock

Ran purple to the sea, supposed with blood

Of Thammuz yearly wounded. — Milt. Faa. Lost, i. 450.

Then passing Berytus (Beirut), — a Boman colony in
the reign of Augustus, — a great School of Jurispru-
dence in the 4th and 5th centuries of the Christian

* Nee Jordanes pelago accipitur ; sed unum atque alterum laenm
integer perfluit ; tertio retinetur^ — ^Tacit. Hist. v. c. 8.

COAST OF SYEIA. Ill

era, — and the locality to which is assigned the legen-
dary combat of St GFeorge and the Dragon, — ^we find
ourselves, as we approach the mouth of the Leantesy
in SiDONy and soon after crossing it, in TmoSy both of
which cities are in Phoenicia. They were the ear-
liest, most enterprising, and wealthiest of all ancient
states.^ Nearly on the same parallel of latitude as

' The local name of Tyre appears to have been Bor or Bar^ hence
the Latin epithet Sarnvnut, a synonym for Tyrius, as in Virgil —
Ut gemm& bibat et Sarrano dormiat anro. — ^Gboko. ii. 506.
The modem name as given in ordinary maps is Sour.

I am tempted -to throw into a Note, as connected with the
history of Tyre and Sidon, a few remarks on a passage in Milton's
Comus, which, I suspect, is more frequently read than fully un-
derstood. The two brothers being enveloped * in double night of
darkness and of shades,' one of them prays thus : —

gentle taper !

Though a rush-candle from the wicker-hole
Of some clay habitation, visit us
With thy long-levelled rule of streaming light,
And thou tkalt he our Star of Arcadyy
Or Tyrian Cynosure !
It may assist the reader who is puzzled with the somewhat re-
condite allusions in the two last lines, if I subjoin and expound a
couplet of Ovid, which, I have no doubt, was present to the mind
of Milton (for Ovid was a great favourite of Milton's) when he
penned tin passage. Ovid, in speaking of the ignorance of the
early Romans in every art but that of war, asks —
Quis tunc aut Hyadas aut Pleiadas AtlantSas
Senserat, aut geminos esse sub axe polos !
Esse duas Arctos, quarum Cynosura petatur
Sidoniis, Helicen Graia carina notet ? — Fast. hi. 105.
It is with the latter couplet only we have to do, which may be thus
paraphrased : — Who in those early times when they thought of
nothing but war, had observed that there are two constellations
now called the Greater and Lesser Bear, — ^but the latter of which
was first called Cynoiura {»vv»f m^cl), probably from the curve in

112 CJOAST OP 8TEIA.

Sidon (33^"*), but considerably to the east beyond the^
chain of Antiltbilnusy was what Milton caUs ' the
delightful seat Of feur Damascus y on the fertfle banks

which ito oomponeiit stars are amnged beiag likened to the cmre
of a dog*8 tail| — and that of the two^ the Una minor or (Jyno$ure is
that which Tyrian and Sidonian pUots look to for guidance^ while
the Greek mariner steers by obeening the * Ursa major or Helice.'
The explanation of the facts mentioned by Orid may be thus
stated ^—

Neither of the constellations spoken of erer sinks below the herimn,
and therefore, bdng risible in a cloudless night at all hours through-
out the year, were naturally looked to for direction at sea, before the
inyention of the maziner^s compass. But, the Great Bear describ-
ing a wider circle round the Pole is a less infallible guide than the
Ursa minor or Cynosure, one bright star in which — ^for the other six
are faintly seen — ^is the pole star itself, which nerer perceptibly shifto
its position. Now the seren bright stars in the Ursa major are so con-
spicuous as to strike every beholder ; and the Greek saOors, con-
tent with the fact that they nerer set, chose them for their guides ;
while the Tyrians, being more experienced mariners, and more
skilfal observers,* had learned to turn the eye to that point in
the heavens where they were sure at all times to find their guiding
star. Goero, (Acad. ii. 20), speaks of ^illam parvulam Cynosn-
ram

QuA fidunt dnce noctnmi Phoenices in alto.
Quae cursu interiore brevi convertitur orbe:*'

And both Ovid and Goero were indebted to the Greek poet Aiatos,
who gives the substance of the facts mentioned above, fully and
neatly in the following lines : —

^u§rifff ykf intern m^ir^i^iToi tf^^^-^yy*'
With regard to the * Star of Arcady,* Milton calls Ursa Major
by that name, in allusion to the mythological stoxy that the frail

♦ Prima ratem ventis credere docta Tyron.— Tibull. i. 7. 20.

SYRIA. 113

Of Abbana and Pharphar, lucidstreams.' — Par. Lostj
I. 468 ; and still fieirther east, but more to the north,
in what is now a dreary desert of sand, was the once
splendid city of Palmyra (Tadmor), the most inter-
esting part of whose history is that which connects
it with the name of Queen Zenobia and her secre-
tary Longinus, author of the Treatise on the Sublime.
Farther south, on the coast, was the town called Accho
in Scripture, by the Greeks Axt], and afterwards Pto-
lemais — the modem Acre, or St Jean d'Acre.

Areadian fair one CaUisto, having, by the jealousy of Juno, been
changed into a she-bear, wandered loi% in the woods of Arcadia,
and was on the point of being shot by her son Areas, when Jupiter
earned her to heaven and gave her a place among the oonstella-
tioTis. Hdiee, Ovid's word for the Great Bear, is commonly con-
adered as another name for CaUiOo; but it is more likely to be
derived firom UXiffw, Tolooy and intended to denote ito revolving
round the pole without ever sinking below the horizon : a fact
which Virgil has expressed as true of both Bears, in the line
Arctoe oceani metuentes aequore tingi.^ — ^Gbobo. i. 246.
The curve of conspicuous stars in the constellation of Ursa
Major, which in England is called Charles's Wain and in Seotiand
the Plough, is the tail of the Great Bear, and if the sweep of the
curve be continued, it leads the eye to the bright and beautiful
star Areturus («^»r«# and tu^a,)

Another learned application of the term Cynosure will be found
in Milton's Allegro, where the poet speaks of ' Towers and battle-
menta'

Bosom'd high in tufted trees.
Where perhaps some beauty lies,
The Cynosure of neighbouring eyes.
In this sense, it is equivalent to lode-ttoTf as employed by Shake-
speare, (Midsummer's Night's Dream, Act i. sc. 1.)

Your eyes are lode-stars,* and your tongue's sweet air
More tuneable than lark to shepherd's ear.

Leit-Btern is the German word from Jetton, to lead, to guide.

I

114 SYRIA.

The last memorable point in Phoenicia is the
prom, of Mt Carmely soon after passing which, we
enter Palaestina.

To Palestine and its sub-divisions, Galilee,
Samabia, and Judaea, are attached recollections
and associations of an interest higher and more sa-
cred than the classical, which it would be foreign to
my purpose to touch upon.

The last place of classical interest near the coast
was Oazay which had a port on the Mediterranean,
and was a flourishing town till it was sacked by
Alexander. Milton, though he speaks of ^ Gaza's
frontier bound,' was not unaware that Palestine ex-
tended farther S. even to the brook called Tm^rem
Aegypti (El Arish) and Bhmocolura at its mouth.

general OBSEBVATIONS on SYRIA.

The country of Syria and Palestine may be con-
sidered as a narrow tract of habitable land, stretch-
ing north and south, and flanked, throughout its whole
length, on the west side by the sea, and on the east
by a sandy desert. This country is penetrated lon-
gitudinally by a range of mountains, which, with
the single interruption of the valley formed by the
river Orontes where it passes Antioch, is continued
for upwards of 400 miles, from Mount Amanus to
the frontiers of Arabia and Egypt. These moun-
tains are entirely calcareous, and, owing to the ir-
regularity of the outline, are singularly picturesque,
presenting frequently the appearance of ruined tow-

SYRIA. 115

ers and caatles. In the northern part, thej form a
single range, separating the great basin of the Oron-
tes from the maritime district, which is watered bj
the streams [rtvi^es de cdte) that flow down their
western declivities. But in latitude 33** 20', where
the mountain-range assumes ifs highest elevation,
it branches off into two, Ltb&nus and AntUi"
harms J which, as formerly mentioned, inclose the ba-
sin of the Leontes. Nearly one degree farther South,
the eastern chain AntiMbanus 2i\ao forks : one of the
branches running directly south, parallel to the line
of coast, and seldom farther from it than 20 miles ;
the other taking a S. £. direction, and skirt-
ing the Desert. These two mountain chains inclose
the wide valley of the Jordan, and uniting again to
the south of the Dead Sea, form a basin, which, un-
like most others, has no opening or outlet.

The conformation of the country now described,
gives rise to the great diversities of soil and climate
which Syria exhibits, — the oppressive heats and ex-
treme humidity of the maritime districts; — the
healthful freshness of the inland and mountainous
regions, produced by the snowy tops of Lebanon,
and the height of the general level ; — and the dry
heats and dismal aridity of the country bordering on
the desert, and of the greater part of Judea itself.

There are numerous traces in this country of vol-
canic action. When Strabo tells us (lib. xvi. c. 2.)
that thirteen flourishing cities are said to have ex-
isted in the valley now filled by the lake Asphal-
tates, it is probable that he is only recording an im-
perfect tradition of the catastrophe we read of in sa-

116 SYRIA.

cred history : and the smoke and pitch that still
rise to the snrface shew that the subterraneous fire
is not yet extinct ; — a notion which the frequency
of earthquakes in Syria at the present day seems to
confirm.

Historical Epochs. — As the country just de-
scribed never formed one separate and independent
state, it will be sufficient to note a few of the re-
markable periods of history connected with it. Such
are, 1. The various events of sacred story from the
time of Abraham to the commencement of the
Christian era. 2. The commercial greatness of
Phoeniciaduring the flourishing times, of Sidon first,
and then of Ttre. S. The taking of ancient Tyre,
called afterwards Palae-tyros, by Nebuchadnezzar,
(b. c. 572,) and of insular Tyre by Alexander the
Great, (a. u. 422, B. c. 332.) 4. The taking and
destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, (A. D. 70.) The
modem history of Syria is included in that of the
Turkish Empire.

In keeping our course S. from Khinocolura, we
pass through that portion of Arabia which was called
Petraea, not from the rocky nature of the soil, but
from the town Petraj chief city of the ancient Na-
bataei.

We are thus brought into contact with a part of
the world, which, though very imperfectly known
to the ancients, as it still is, even in our day, is not
without interest to the classical reader, for a reason
that will presently appear.

^

117

VIII.

ARABIA

Is the name given in ancient and modem times to
avast peninsnla lying between the parallels of 12** and
34* N. Lat., and 32** and 60° E. Long. It contains
about 1,000,000 of square miles, covering an extent
of the earth's surface equal to Great Britain, France,
Spain, the Netherlands, Sweden, and Germany
united. By far the greater part of this space is an
arid irredeemable waste of sandy desert. Some por-
tions of the sea-bord and a few Oases on the &imis
Arabicus and Mare Eryihraeum produced in consi-
derable abundance balsam, aloes, myrrh, casia, frank-
incense, and other odoriferous substances, which were
in request among the luxurious population of Imperial
Rome. Hence prevailed exaggerated notions of the
wealth of a country, which, while it provided such
superfluities, was destitute of the means of comfort-
able subsistence. To these productions, then, may be
traced the allusions to Arabia as a sortof earthlypara-
dise ; and hence the very inappropriate application
of the epithet Felix to one of the poorest and most
wretched countries on the face of the globe.* ^

* The following quotations may be taken as examples of the
omne ignotum pro magnifieo : —

118 AKABIA. .

Without dwelling longer, therefore, on this terra
panim cognitay we return to the sea-coast; and
taking care, as we proceed southward, to keep on our
right hand, and so steer clear of, ^that Sirbonian bog,
Where armies whole have sunk,' we reach at last
the eastern branch of NiLUS^ the Nile, the river, and
the only river of Aeqyptus.

Quid censes mnnenk terrae %

Quid maris extremos Arabas ditantis et Indos !

Hob. Epibt. i. 66.
Urantnr pia tnra fodui, urantnr odoros,

Qiios tcner e teira divite mittit Arabs. — Tibul. ii. 2. 3.
lod, beatis nunc Arabum invides
Gazis, et acrem militiam paras
Non ante devictis Sabseae
Regibus. — Hob. Cabm. i. 29. I.
Plenaa ant Arabum domos. — In. ii. 12. 24.
Intactis opulentior
Thesauris Arabum et divitis Indiae^ — Ib. hi. 24. 1.

nee

Otia diyitiis Arabum Uberrima mute. — Ib. Epist. i. 7. 3S.

gentle gales,

Fanning their odoiiferous wings, dispense
Native perfumes, and wliisper whence they stole
Those balmy spoils. As when to them who sail
Beyond the Cape of Hope, and now are past
Mozambick, off at sea, north-east winds blow
Sabaean odours from the spicy shore
Of Araby the Blest ; with such delay
Well pleas'd they slack th*ir course, and many a league
Cheer'd with the grateful smell old Ocean smiles.

Milt. Pab. Lost, iv. 156.
There is poetical truth at least in the last passage quoted, for the
sou&i-east coast which Milton speaks of, where the tribe Sahaei
lived, is that which chiefly abounds in sweet-smeUing gums and
spices.

n9

IX.

AEGYPTU8.

Egypt is the north-east portion of the great penin-
sular continent of Africa, situated between the
Tropic of Cancer (23* 300 ^^ 31° 3(y N. Latitude,
and between 30° and 35° E. Longitude.

There is perhaps no part of the world out of
Italy and Greece, to which allusion is more fre-
quently .made by the poets and orators of antiquity
than to Egypt ; but no ancient writer who is not a
professed geographer goes much into detail, or
mentions more than one or two of its towns and
localities. The singular nature of the country, the
immemorial existence of the Pyramids, the dim tra-
dition of a very remote antiquity, the absence of
rain, the mighly cataracts and periodical inundations
of the river, and above all, the imexplored, and as
the ancients thought, inexplorable fountain-head of
the Nile which the river-god studiously concealed
from mortals, — all combined to throw a charm of
sublimity and interest over the whole, which cap-
tivated the imagination both of the poet and his
readers. Hence the frequent question, so strik-
ingly put by Tibullus when he asks,—

* Nile Pater, qu&nam possum te dicere causA,
Aut quibus in terris, occuluisse caput 1' — i. 8. 23.

But the sculptural and architectural remains of un-

120 AEGYPTUS.

certain date, which modem research has brought to
light at Luxor and Camac, in the island JPhUaej and
elsewhere, do not seem to have been duly appreciated
bji or eren generally known to, the ancients. Of
the Towns so thickly planted on the banks of the
Nile/ none have a claim to be enumerated here,
with the exception of the following : 1. I^ene (As-
souan), a town so nearly under the tropic, that Ln-
can was justified in saying (ii. 687), ' umbras nxi8-
quam flectente Syene,' meaning thereby, that at the
summer solstice, when the sun is on the meridian,
the shadow is not projected northward, as it is in all
higher latitudes : 2. Thehae {Ntloticae)^ which must
be regarded as one of the largest and most ancient
of cities, seeing it is described by Homer as having
a hundred gates (IxarojiicuXoi) and capable of sending
forth from each of them 200 men-at-arms with cha-
riots and horses : of all which and of the city itself
not a vestige remained in Juvenal's time, — ' Atque
vetus Thebe centum jacet obruta portis.' — (xv. 16) :
3. MemphtSj on the left bank of the Nile, with
the Pyramids in its immediate neighbourhood.
The town is called by Strabo to PaoiXetov Aiyuicnow :
and, in Latin, Memphitica TeUus is used as a poeti-
cal synonym {or Aefft/ptus. Fifteen miles farther
down, the Nile separated into different channels,
by all of which its waters found their way to the
sea. Of these channels the ancients enumerated
seven :' the most noted are the two extreme ones,

^ Herodotus reports the number to have been 20,000 {iirfivfutf)
in the prosperous reign of Amasis. B. ii. cap. 177.
' Hence the constant allusion among the poets to ' septemfiuS;

AEGYPTUS. 121

the Ostium Canop^tcwm, W. and Pelusidcam E. These
two diverging branches, with the sea-coast line be-
tween them, form the sides and base of the trianga-
lar space Delta, so called from its resemblance to
the capital form of that letter in the Grreek alphabet ;
and by these two channels alone the water of the
Nile is now discharged. Twelve miles west from
the Canopic embonchnre was Alexandria^ so named
after Alexander the Great, who founded it on his
way back from the Oasis and temple of Jupiter Am-
mon ; — ^a great city in ancient times, as it is now
under the same name, though with the quantity of
the penult syllable corrupted.

To these localities may be added the two ports of
Egypt on the Red Sea, Myos Hormos and Berenice;
and on the Nile itself Omhi and Tentgraj which owe
their notoriety to their having fallen under the lash of
Juvenal, in consequence of a deadly quarrel between
them on a subject, which has set people by the ears in
every age of the world.^

General Observations on Aegyptus. — To
have a general idea of Egypt, " imagine to yourself
a narrow sea, and arid rocks (the Ked Sea and Ara-

septena, septemgemini, septemplicis, ottia NiUJ* Papyrifer is also
one of the epithets of the Nile, from the abundant growth on its
banks of the reed papyrtu, which long famished the material for
ancient writings, and still giyes its name to the modem substitdte.

* Sunmms utrinque

Inde furor vulgo, quod numina vicinorum
Odit uterqne locus, quum solos credat habendos
Esse Deos, quos ipse colit ! — Sat. xy. 35.

122 AEGTPTUS.

bian Desert) on the one side ; on the other^ immense
plains of sand (Deserts of Libya) ; in the middle, a
river flowing in a valley 450 miles long, and fix)m
9 to 20 broad ; and this river, at the distance of 90
miles from the sea, dividing into two main streams,
the ramifications of which wander over a soil £ree
from obstacles and almost without declivity."* So
imperceptible, indeed, is the dedivity, that the
Egyptian Nile would scarcely move at all, but for
the propelling force of the waters from Aethiopia.

Of the parallel ridges that confine the Nile the
eastern is the higher and more rugged ; the western
is like a natural embankment of rock covered with
sand : they part, to run in opposite directions, below
Memphis.

The whole country is a monotonous flat, the uni-
formity of which is broken only by a few scattered
palm-trees, single or in small clumps, and these be-
come less frequent as one ascends the river. The
aspect of the surface varies according to the season ,*
in our winter months, it is a soil clothed with the
finest verdure, and adorned with luxuriant vege-
tation; in the other seasons it is, by turns, a
sleechy marsh, — an arid dusty plain, — ^and a sea of
fresh water where the towns are seen like islands.'^

* Volney'8 Trayels, Vol. i. ch. 1.

' With timely pride above th' Egyptian vale,
His fattie wayes doe fertile dime ontwell.
And OYerflow each plaine and lowly dale :
But when his later spring 'gins to ayale, (t. e. abate, sink,)
Huge heaps of mudd he leayes, wherein there breed
Ten thousand kindes of creatures, partly male

AEGTPTUS. 123

Bain is a very rare occurrence in Egypt : its uses
are supplied by the periodical inundations of the
Nile.® The cause of these, about which the ancients
formed so many wild conjectures, may be stated
thus : — The long valley of Egypt presents no point
highenough to former arrestclouds. Accordingly, the
moisture evaporated from the Mediterranean during
summer, being wafted over Egypt by the north
winds which blow regularly at that season, (the
Etesiae of the ancients,) meets with no obstruction,
till, encountering the lofty mountains of central
Africa, it is there discharged in torrents of rain, which
feed, to overflowing, the Nile and the numerous
tributaries of its earlier course.

The river begins to swell about midsummer,^
reaches its height at the autumnal equinox, and at
the winter solstice is so near its lowest, that the seed
is then thrown into the rich stratum of soil which the
water has left or penetrated. This annual deposit
of soil has in the course of ages carried consi-
derably out to sea the coast of the Delta, and has filled
up many of the septemplicis oatia Nili. The bed of
the river itself is raised above the natural level by a
process similar to that which has taken place in the
Cohnata of the Po. A little north of lat. 29°, the
western range of skirting heights retires from the

And partly female, of his fruitful seed :

Such ug;ly monstrous shapes elsewhere may no man reed.

Spbnsrb, Fae&t Queen, i. 1. 21.
* Te propter, nuUos tellus tua postulat imbres,

Arida nee Pluvio supplicat herba Jovi. — Tibull. i. 8. 26.

^ arentes findit cum Sirius agros,

Fertilis aestiva Nilus abundat aqu^.— Tibull. i. 8. 21.

124 AEGYPTUS.

river, and sweeping round in a circular direction^
encloses a basin of 150 miles in circumference. This
basin, however, like the other Libyan valleys, would
have remained a barren waste of sand, had not the
ancient kings of Egypt cut a canal across the rocky
bar which prevented the waters of the Nile from
flowing into it, even at the highest flood. The water
was thus received and preserved for distribution in
a receptacle called lake 4faem, formed by nature or
excavated by man, at the foot of the northern side
of the enclosing lulls, and still existing in a shrunk
state in Birket-el-caroon. The admission of the
fertilizing stream, which was regulated by sluices,
converted the waste into the richest portion of
Egyptian soil. It was called Nomas ArsinoiteSy from
Arsinoe its capital, and contained, among other
marks of Egyptian wealth and splendour, the fa-
mous Labyrinth, so ftdly described by Herodotus
(B. II. 125). With this system of irrigation seems
also to have been connected Bahr Tusef (Joseph's
Kiver), a canal which runs parallel to the Nile for
90 miles. Between the lake Moeris and Alex-
andria are two valleys, the one the valley of Natron
lakes, and the other the channel of Bahr belam^,
i. e, the River without Water,

Historical Epochs. — The ancient history of
Egypt may be arranged in three great periods :

I. The^r^ during which it was an independent
and powerftd monarchy, extends from the earliest
records to. the year B. c. 525, (the year of Rome
229,) when it was conquered by Cambyses king of
Persia.

AEGYPTUS. 125

II. The second period embraces a lapse of two
centuries nearly, during which, with the exception of
a short interval of independence, it was subject to
Persia; and concludes with the conquest of the
country by Alexander the Great (b. c. 329).

III. The third is a period of three centuries, dur-
ing which Egypt flourished under Ptolemy, one of
Alexander's generals, and the Ptolemies his suc-
cessors, down to the reign of Cleopatra {b.c. 30), at
whose death it became a Roman province.

Thenceforward Egypt remained an appendage of
the Eoman empire till it was invaded by the Sara-
cens, who took Alexandria (a.d. 642). It was sub-
ject to the Caliphs of Bagdad till the end of the tenth
century. After five centuries of barbarism, mis-
government, and unhappy independence, it fell at
last under the dominion of the Turks (A. D. 1517) ;
and, for the last three centuries, Egypt has been
oppressed alternately by them and by the Mame-
lukes.

Antiquities. — The Thebaid and the Islands of
PitToe and Elepharilfine near Syene^ abound with
curious temples, statues, and other remains of an-
cient art and science, supposed to be of very high
antiquity; and these may become more interesting to
the classical student, if the hieroglyphics with which
they are inscribed shall ever be fully deciphered.
South-west from Memphis are the largest of the Pyra-
mids; oneof whichis480 feet in perpendicular height,
and covers eleven acres of ground ; it would hardly
stand in the square of Lincoln's Inn Fields. The gi-
gantic figure with Negro features, carved in the solid

126 AEGTPTUS.

rocky called the Sphinx^ is near the Pyramid of
Gizeh. In the neighbourhood of Alexandria is what
is called Pompey's pillar, though late researches as-
sign it, with more probability, to Seyerus ; it is 98
feet high : Also two obelisks of granite, the base of
each a single block, covered with hieroglyphics : one
of these, called Cleopatra's Needle, 73 feet high, ifi
still standing.

127

X.
AFEICA SEPTENTEIONALIS.

The Northern Coast of Africa extends westward
about 2000 miles from the frontiers of Egypt to the
Pillars of Hercules, that is from Long. 25° East,
to 6^ West ; — ^bounded on the North by the Medi-
terranean ; on the South by the Deserts of Libya
and Sahara, and by the mountain range of Atlas.

As we advance westward from Alexandria^ we
arrive at Paraetonium the frontier town of Egypt,^
two degrees south of which is the most famed of the
Oases J which rise like islands, at rare intervals, out
of the ocean of arid sand that stretches across the
continent of Africa. Li this Oams was the Temple
of Jupiter Ammon,* which Alexander the Great
went to consult. Ketuming to the coast, we meet with
nothing of classical interest, except the Catabathmos^
or great declivity, which Sallust improperly describes

^ Isiy Paraetonium genialiaque arva Canopi

Quae oolisy et Memphin, pahniferamque Pharon^
Quaque celer Nilus, lato delapsus ab alyeo,
Per septem portus in maris exit aquaa. — ^Oy. Ah. ii. 13, 7.

* Ventnm erat ad templmn, Libyds quod gentibus unum
Inculti Garamantes habent : stat certior illic
Jupiter, ut memorant, sed non aut fulmina Yibrans,
Aut dmilis noetro, aed tortis comibus Ammon. — Luc. ix. 51 1.
Ease apud Ammonia fanum foois luce diuma
Frigidus, et calidus noctumo tempore fertur.— -Lucr. yi. 848.

128 AFRICA SEPTENTfilONALIS.

as the boundary between Egypt and Africa, till we
reach Cyrene. In the latter days of Greece Gyrene
was a flourishing colony, where art and philosophy
were cultivated f but at the present day not a ves-
tige of it remains. Farther along, Berenice is
mentioned as a town near which were the Grardens
of the Hesperides ; but Virgil places them in Mauri-
tarda (Aen. IV. 481). This brings us successively
to the shallows and whirlpools called Syrtea^ major
and miruyr^ (from oupco, traho).* Near the SyrtU
wmorVas the Lake Tritonisj obscurely connected
with the mythological history of Minerva, who is
often called Tritonia Virgo.*

From this point commences a region of great natu-
ral fertility, which was long the ^ granary' of Kome,
and rich in historical recollections. First, we have
Africa Propria^ the proper domain of CABTHAGOf

> StatiuB speaks of his father as of a man,
Quo non Munichiae quidquam praestantius arces,
Doctaye Cyrene, Sparteve animosa creaTit — St. Sil. v. 3. 1 07.

4 tres (naves) Enrus ah alto

In hreyia et Syrtes nrget— Abn. i. 110.
Barharas Syrtes, uhi Maura semper

Aestuat unda. — Hok Od. ii. 6. 4.

s Hanc et Pallas amat ; patrio quae rertice nata
Terrarum primam Lihyen (nam proxima coelo est, ^
Ut prohat ipse calor) tctigit ; stagnique quieta
Vultus vidit aqua, posuitque in margine plantas,
Et se dflectA Tritonida dixit ah undl— Lucan. ix. 350.

« Urhs antiqua fuit— Tyrii tenuere coloni—
Carthago, Italiam contra Tiherinaque longe
Ostia, dives opum, stndiisque asperrima helli ;
Quam Juno fertnr terris magis omnihus unam
Posthahit& coluisse Samo.— Aen. i. 12.

AFRICA SEPTENTRIONALIS. 129

the great rival of Rome, and 27 m. west, on the Ba-
grSdaSj was CSica, where the second Cato, rather than
fiubmii; to Caesar, put a period to his life; and hence
he is distinguished from Cato Major by the epithet
Uticemia. In the interior is Zama^ where the elder
Sdpio defeated Hannibal. We then enter Nvmidiaj
the country of Jugurtha, and the scene of the first
exploits of Marius, which prepared the way for
Metellus Nvmidicus to finish the war and carry
Jugnrtha prisoner to Borne. The last western
division of this African coast was MaureUmia^ the
kingdom of Bocchus and of Juba, bounded on the
N. by the Mediterranean, on the W. by the Atlantic,
and on the S. by the lofty range of Mt AtlaSj^
which protects it from the encroachments of the
ocean of sand that lies beyond. As we approach the
Atlantic, we come in sight of Ahyla (Bock of Ceuta)
and Oalpe (Bock of Gibraltar), the two Pillars of
Hercules, on the opposite sides of the Fretum Hercu-
hum, and have thus completed our tour of the
Mediterranean with all its dependencies.

General Observations on Northern Africa.
—The two most remarkable features of this country
are, the Great Desert, and the mountain range of

7 ooelifer Aflas.— Statu Thbb. B. t. line 430.

jamque ToUns apicem et latera ardua cernit

Atlantia duri^ caelum qui rertice fulcit :
Atlantis, cinctum aasidue cui nubibus atris
Piniferum caput et yento pulsatur et imbri :
Nix humeros infosa tegit ; turn flumina mento
Praecipitant genis, et glade riget horridabarba.— Abm. iv. 246.

K

130 AFRICA SEPTENTBIONALIS.

Atlas. The former, the largest continiiity of barren
surface in the known world, extends, under diflferent
names, from the shores of the Atlantic to the banks
of the Nile, interrupted only by a few oases or patches
of habitable land, among which may be reckoned
Phazanta, the modem Fezzan, 300 miles long,
by 200 broad, the country of the Garamantes. The
whole length of this sandy desert is not less than
3000 miles, and the average breadth about 700. Nor
is there any reason why the interference, first of the
Nile and Ked Sea, and then of the Persian Gulf,
should prevent us from taking in as part of this
stony girdle of the Old World the Deserts of Arabia
and of Iran, and the table land of Altai and Desert
of Gobi, quite on to the Wall of China.

To the E. of Fezzan the African Desert is tra-
versed from N. to S. by mountainous elevations of
naked rock, in particular by the black and dreary
Haratch, the Mom Ater of Pliny : and a calcareous
ridge extends from the Oasis called Angela,® to the
Natron Lakes of Egypt, separating the Desert of
Barca from that of Libya.

The mountain range of Atlas, which is the
northern boundary of the desert called Sahara or
Zaara, stretches from Fezzan to the Atlantic. It
rises in successive terraces from the most northern,
which does not exceed 580 or 600 yards in height,
to the farthest south, which, if it be covered with
perpetual snow in Lat. 32°, as some travellers

^ Angila, or Augela, has retained its ancient name from the time
of Herodotus, yid. B. iv. c. 172 and 182.

AFBICA SEPTENTRIONALTS. 131

affirm, cannot be less than 11,000 feet high. The
lower elevations are calcareous ; and among them
was found the Numidian or Graetulian marble, an
article of luxury in great request among the Romans,
(Hor. Od. II. 18, 4.) The successive gradations are
connected by transverse branches running north and
south, among which are plains and valleys, watered
by streams without issue, and constituting the
' Country of Dates.' Atlas extends eastward from
the Atlantic to the Regio Syrticay forming a bulwark
against the moving sands of the southern desert.

The streams that descend from the northern side
of Atlas water that belt of land, from 60 to 160 miles
broad, which was long the granary of the Roman
empire, and is now the country of Tunis, Algiers,
and Morocco.

Historical Epochs. — There is little in the his-
tory of this country worth mentioning here, except
what relates to Carthage, whose empire, at the
height of her prosperity, comprised, if not the whole,
by far the most valuable part of North Africa. The
city is thought to have been founded by a colony of
Phoenicians, before the building of Rome; how
long before, is uncertain. Carthage was taken, and
the Carthaginian empire destroyed, by Scipio Afri-
canus Minor, (A. U. 609, b. C. 145.) The most
memorable epochs in the ancient history of N. West-
em Africa after the fall of Carthage, are the unsuc-
cessful attempts of Jugurtha against the power of
Rome, (A. U. 643) and, 60 years later, of Juba
against Caesar.

The modem history of this coast affords a melan-

132 AFBICA SEPTENTBIONALIS.

choly proof how much the bountj of nature may be
defeated by barbarigm and misgoyemment With
the exception of a few marble ornaments with Bo-
man inscriptions^ scarcely anjthing remains to attest
the former existence of Carthage^ or of the many
populous and opulent cities that were situated be-
tween Mt Atlas and the Mediterranean.

133

EUEOPEAN ISLANDS OF NOTE.

BBITANNIAj vd ALBION^ — GEEAT BBITAIN,

AlTD

HIBEBIOAj JUVEBNAj vel lEBNE^ — IfiELAND.

The ancient Geography of the Britiflh Isles, so
far as regards the times of classical antiquity, lies
inthin a very narrow compass. The whole appara-
tus of divisions and subdivisions of the soil, and of
tribes dwelling therein, which is commonly put for-
ward as the ancient geography of Beitain, refers to
a period long subsequent to what is called the golden,
and even to the silver age of Koman literature, and
consequently serves in no way to throw light upon
any Greek or Latin author that deserves to be read.

Among all the classical writers who flourished in
Greece, from the days of Homer to those of Alex-
ander the Great, Aristotle alone makes any allu-
Bion to the British Isles, and even he only once, and
very briefly.^

Julius Caesar made two hostile incursions into
Britain (b. C. 58 and 55) ; but they were short in du-

^iytfiifKi, Axfim »9tt Ifg^if. — Ari8t.dk Muhdo, c. 3.

134 INSULAE BBITANNICAE.

rtition, and confined to the conntry between the strait
of Dover and the Thames. The only localities lie
particnlarizes are TamSisis — ^which he merely names
as the river that bounds the territories of the British
prince Cassivellamms — ^and Cantium (Kent), of
which he says no more than that it is regio maritima
omnia. Once, also, he simply enumerates six British
tribes, without any data for fixing their localities.
This, with a few general and incorrect notices of the
form and situation of the island and of the manners
of its inhabitants, is the whole amount of British
geography that we can glean firom Caesar's Com-
mentaries. Strabo, who lived under Augustus and
Tiberius, does little more than repeat the vague
generalities of Caesar. So scanty, indeed, was the
Greek geographer's acquaintance with our island,
that in his great work, in which he has collected all
the geographical knowledge of his own and of all for-
mer times, his brief chapter onBritain concludes, after
some inaccurate general description, without the men-
tion of a single mountain, river, town, district, or
people. He declares that the island is not worth the
trouble of conquering! (B. ii. p. 1 15.) He could not,
indeed, know much more of it than Caesar did ; for no
expedition to Britain was undertaken during the
reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. There is reason
to believe, however, from several passages of Strabo's
work, that long before the time even of Julius
Caesar, probably about the epoch of Alexander's
Persian expedition, or a little after, one Pytheas, a
mercantile adventurer of Massiliay but, it would ap-
pear, a good mathematician and astronomer, had ex-

INSULAE BRITANNICAE. 135

plored the S. and E. coast of Britain, and had even
reached Thul^ (Iceland) ; driven thither, it may be
supposed, by stress of weather. We gather, also, that
he had given, in a published account of this extraordi-
nary voyage, more correct information than any that
antiquity has left us : but unfortunately, Strabo, hav-
ing a system of his own to support, had taken up a
prejudice against Pytheas as a lying traveller, and
accordingly quotes his descriptions and views, which
are much more correct than his own, only to impugn
and contenm them. Diodorus Siculus, who was
half a century earlier than Strabo, seems to have
given more credit to Pytheas than Strabo did, and
accordingly traces, in his historical work (B. v. C.
21.) a rapid sketch of the general features of Bri-
tain, much nearer the truth than that of the professed
geographer.

Caligula, the successor of Tiberius, planned, but
never executed, an invasion of Britain. Claudius, the
next emperor, that he might have a pretext for cele-
brating a triumph at Bome, made preparations for a
British expedition, from which the geographer Pom-
ponius Mela, who wrote while it was fitting out, antici-
pates fuller information.^ Meanwhile he repeats the

' ratibiisque impervia Thule. — Claud, hi. Cons. Hon.

68.

' firitannia, qualis sit^ qualesque progeneret, mox certiora
et magis explorata dicentur. Quippe tamdiu clausam aperit
ecce principum maximus^ nee indomitaruin mode ante se, yerom
ignotarum quoque, gentium victor, qui propriarum rerum fidem
Qt bello aifectavit, ita triumpho declaraturus portat. — Pomp.
Mel. III. 6.

136 - INSULAE BRITANNICAE.

crude notions of his predecessors, such as, that Britain
is in shape " triangular, and very much like Sicily,**
(triquetra, et Siciliae maxime similis.)

Under the next four emperors we hear Kttle or
nothing of Britain.

Vespasian sent Agricola to survey and subdue it,
and he it was who first demonstrated, what had hi-
therto been matter of conjecture, that Britain was
an island. The next step we take, then, in the
classical geography of Britain, is the account given
of this expedition by Agricola's biographer and son-
in-law, the historian Tacitus. Yet it is manifest
that Tacitus had but vague and imperfect ideas of
the scene of his hero's exploits. His notions of the
site and form of the island are scarcely more correct
than those of Caesar and Strabo. He still conceived
the east side of Britain to lie parallel to Grermany,
the west to Spain^ and the south to correspond so
exactly to the coast of Gaul, that, for reaching the
British shore, it was indifferent whether a vessel
sailed firom the mouth of the Seine, the Loire, or the
Garonne : and the correction he proposes of Livy's
fancy in likening it to an oblong rhomboid or two-
edged axe {scvtulae vel hipenni)^ is no great improve-
ment on the triangular form ascribed to it by Caesar
and Strabo.

Ireland, again, is described by Tacitus as in-
termediate between Britain and Spain, which is
scarcely less wide of the truth than Strabo's notion,
that Ireland lay directly to the north of Britain. The
descriptions and localities of Tacitus are so far in-
deed from being explicit, that the learned are not

INSULAE BRITANNICAE. 187

agreed whether Agricola marched towards Scotland
by the eastern or western side of the island ; and it
is still matter of dispute where the different actions
recorded by him were fought. The site, for example,
of the great battle with Galgacus is variously as-
signed by antiquarians, some fixing it in the plain
north of Ardoch ; others at Dealgin Boss, near Com-
rie ; at Fendochs on the Almond, Perthshire ; and
it is carried by Gteneral Roy as fer north as Fetter-
cairn and Stonehaven. Tacitus mentions more
names of places, however, than any of his predeces-
sors. They are the following : — of Mountains, he
speaks of Mona Orampius^ and by that term he evi-
dently means to denote a single hill (what hill is
imcertain), and not the range which has since ac-
quired the name : of Eivers, he names Tameaa^ the
Thames ; Olota and Bodotria^ the estuaries of the
Clyde and of the Forth ; Tdua^ the mouth of the
Tay, though some will have it that he means the
Solway Firth;* Sahrma^ the Severn; Antcma or
Aufonoj perhaps the Avon, a tributary of the Se-
vern : of Tbibes and Pbovinces, he mentions the
Trinohantes in Essex and Middlesex ; the Brigantes
in Yorkshire ; the Ideni in Suffolk and Norfolk ; the
Silures and Ordomces in Wales ; the Gangij posi-
tion uncertain ; the Eorestiy or rather perhaps Bo-
restij in Fife ; Caledonia^ the country north of the
Firth of Forth ; Orcadesy the Orkneys ; Monuj the

* Clota et Bodotria diversi maris aestibus per immenaum re-
vectae, angusto terrarum spatio dirimuntur : quod turn praesidiia
finnabatur.— Tac. Agr. 23.

' Vide Chalmers's Caledonia, vol. i. p. 164>

138 INSULAE BRITANXICAE.

iBlaad of Anglesey : of Towns, he names Camah-
dununiy Colcliester ; Vendammniy near St Alban's ;
Londiniumj which is described by Tacitos as a place
of great wealth and traffic, though not a Boman co-
lony/ and by Ammianns Marcellinns, who wrote 300
years later, as an ancient town, which in later times
had got the name of Augusta.'' The situation of
the Portua Trutalensts y, Tmcculensisy mentioned
by Tacitus (Agric. c. 38.) is not ascertained.

Juvenal alludes to Butupiaej (Bichborough or
Sandwich,) on the Kentish coast, as £unous for
oysters.®

Of Ibeland we learn nothing &om the classics
but the name, Hibemiay Juvemaj or lema. Its re-
lative position is incorrectly given ; and even as late
as the fourth century of our era, Claudian (iv. Cons*
Hon. 33.) calls it glacialis leme: — ^a strange epithet
for the " Emerald Isle."

The references given above comprehend all the
British geography that can be called classical. Pto-
lemy of Alexandria, who lived towards the close of
the second century of the Christian era, is the first
who gives any detailed account of the geography of
Britain. He enumerates a variety of subdivisions,
tribes, and towns, and attempts even a map of the

* Londinium perrexit, cognomento quidem coloniae non insigne,
sed copia negotiatorum et commeatuum maxime celebre. — Tac.
An. xiy. 33.

7 Londiniam, vetus oppidum, quod Augustam posteritas appel-
lavit. — Amm. Marc, xxvii. 8.

8 Circeis nata forent, an

Lucrinum ad saxum, Rutupinove edita fiindo

OsTRBA^ caUebat primo deprendere xnorsa. — Juv. it. 140.

INSULAE BRITANNICAE. 139

island. But he does not add mncli to our know-
ledge of ancient Britain, his account being little
more than a dry catalogue of names^ where very
frequently the position, and almost always every
thing else about the place, are left wholly unknown.
Regarding, therefore, the details which Ptolemy
gives, as destitute of interest to any but the pro-
fessed geographer and antiquary, we think it un-
necessary to insert them, and shall conclude this
account of Britain, as known in classical times,
with the mention of a few particulars, relating, Isty to
the Walls and Ramparts carried across our island
by the Romans; 2<ZZy, to the Roads constructed there
under the Empire ; and, 3e%, to the most remark-
able Camps and Stations of which remains are still
visible on the spot.

The passages quoted below comprehend the most
striking of the allusions to the British Islands in
the Roman poets, and the manner in which they
are mentioned will at once account for and justify
the summary way in which the ancient topography
of Britain has been disposed of.^

9 penitufl toto divisos orbe Britannoe. — ^Virg. Edog. ii. 67.

ultimos

Orbis Britannoe. — Hoe. Od. i. 35. 30.

belluosus qui remotis

Obstrepit oceanus Britannis. — Ib. iv. 14, 47.
Visam Britannos hospitibus feros. — Ib. hi. 4. 33.

(Caesar)

Territa quaesitis ostendit terga Britannis. — Luc. ii. 572.

yeluti mediae qui tutus in arvis

Sicaniae rabidum nescit latrare Pelorum :

Aut yaga cum Tethys Rutupinaque littora fervent,

140 INSULAE BKITANNICAE.

I. — ^RoMAN Walls.

Famous as the Pict'a Wall and Graeme's or QrMs
Dyke are in Britain^ and certain as it is that they
are Boman works, the historical accounts of them
are extremely scanty. They are seldom even al-
luded to by ancient writers. The fiuits with regard
to them are the following : —

I. From Bowness on the Solway Firth two
lines of defence ran eastward, nearly parallel, and
close to each other. We can trace them still as
they cross the Eden and the Irthing, and pass by
Carlisle {LuffuvaUum)^ Glenwhelt, Rowchester, and
Newcastle,^ terminating on the north side of the
Tyne, 3i miles below the town last named. The

Unda Caledonioe fallit torbata BritannoB. — Luc. vi. 65.
Sea pedibus Porthoe sequimur, sea claaae Britaanoe,
£t maris et terrae caeca perida Tiae* — Prop. ii. 27. 5.

^nostro didacta Britannia mando.^— Claud. Mall. Cohb. 51.

VincendoB alio quaesiyit in orbe Britannos.^ — ii. Cons. Stil. 149.

extremis legio praetenta Britannis,

Q,aae Scoto dat frena trad, ferroqae notatas

Perlegit exsangaes Picto moriente figuras. — Cl. Bell. Get. 418.

arma quidem ultra

Littora Jayemae promoyimos, et modo captas
Oreadas, et minima oontentos nocte Britannos. — Juv. ii. 161.
The Scottish reader will not be displeased to find appended to
these passages the beaatiful lines of his coontryman, George 6a-
chanan, in which he dedicates his translation of the Psalms of
David to the unfortanate Mary Queen of Scots :
Nympha, Caledoniae quae nunc feliciter orae

Missa per innumeros sceptra tueris avos, ♦ * *
Accipe, sed fetcilis, cultu donata Latino
Carminay fatidid nobile Regis opus :
Ilia quidem^ Grrha procul et Permesside lympha^
Paene sub Arctoi ddere nata poll.

INSULAE BRITANNICAE. 141

distance from one extremity to the other is 73 Ro-
man miles, equivalent to 68 i English. Of these
two lines of defence, the southern consists of a ram-
part (vallum) J L e, a mound of earth intermixed with
shapeless stones ; and the other, of a wall {murtis)]
with fecings of squared stones {Jtapides quadrati)j
which appears to have been at least 12 feet high,
and 7 or 8 thick. The rampart and wall are flanked
on the north side by a ditch, whose breadth Gordon
found at one place to be 25 f., and its depth 20 f.,
[Itinerar, SepterUrionalej p. 73.) Between the two
lines of defence was a military way ; and the whole
three were crossed at right angles by at least one
great road, Watlin Street, near the modem village
of Gorbridge. Along the wall there appear to have
been, at nearly a mile's distance from eaxsh other,
81 <iastellaj or military forts, about 66 feet square,
the remains of which are called by the inhabitants
castles, or castle-steads, — and 18 military stations
[castra statwa), which are now generally named
Chesters; e.g. Hunnum^ Halton Chesters; Cilumvm,
Walwick Chesters; Aesioa, Great Chesters. Pe-
tween the last and BorcomcuSy a station to the
eaflt of Aesicay the wall, as it runs along a rocky
eminence, still presented twelve or thirteen courses
of fiwing-stones, as observed some twenty years
ago. In places more accessible, the dressed stones
have been carried off to build farm-houses. Be-
tween these castella there were also exploratory
towers (turres): And thus the Stativa, Castella,
and Turres formed a praetenturay the great points
of which were connected by means of the vallum^

142 INSULAE BRITANNICAE.

II. Again, between the Firths of Clyde and Forth,
a lampart and ditch extended eastward from Don-
glass on the Clyde, two miles west of Old Kilpa-
trick, to Camden between Abercom and Borrow-
stownness on the Forth, a distance of 34f [English
miles. The principal points in its progress are Be-
mnly, five miles north of Glasgow, (near which it
crossed the Kelvin, and whence both ditch and
rampart maybe still distinctly tracedastheyrun along
the southern side of the basin of the Kelvin for se-
veral miles eastward to Calder) ; then Kirkintilloch,
Caxhill, Camelon, and Falkirk. Along this line,
the first defences were made (a.d. 81), by Agricola,
who seems to have erected a praetenturay or chain
of forts, between the two seas, at this narrowest part
of the island, with a view to secure his conquests
against the Caledonians, leaving them to the enjoy-
ment of their savage liberty in all the country be-
yond. This security, however, it would appear,
being found incomplete, Adrian, (who is thought to
have visited Britain,) contracted the limits of the
empire, and erected a new line of defence, consisting
principally of a turf wall and ditch, between . the
Tyne and the Solway. During the reign of the
succeeding emperor, Antoninus Pius, his lieutenant,
Lollius Urbicus, again pushed the Eoman dominions
to the Firth of Forth, and carried a rampart and
ditch firom sea to sea, to connect the forts of Agri-
cola,^® and so complete the line of defence, A.D. 144.

^^ Of these forts Horsley has ascertained the position of 13, and
supposes there were in all 19.

INSULAE BRITANNICAE. 143

Thus far there is but little room for doubt, as well
from historical documents, as from the inscribed
stones, coins, and medals, which have been dug up
along the line.

But by whom the Wall described above as run-
ning nearly parallel to Adrian's Vallum was pro-
jected and built, is a point extremely doubtftd. It
is commonly and confidently assigned to Septimius
Severus, and thought to have been constructed A.D.
209. But the grounds of this opinion are the weak-
est possible, and warrant no such conclusion. Dion
Cassius, who gives the fullest account of that empe-
ror's British expedition (B. LXXVI. c. 13, &c.), makes
no mention of any such work of his : nor is there,
indeed, any authority for Severus having made either
wall or rampart, except two short sentences, the one
of Spartianus, who wrote at the close of the third
century," the other of Eutropius,^^ written a century

^ Britaimiam, mnro per tranBversain inBulam ducto, utrimqne
ad finem oceani munivit. — Hist. Aug. Script.

^* Ut reeeptas proyincias omni securitate mmiiret, mlhun per
XXXII millia passuum a mari ad mare duxit. — Eut. 8. 16. Vio-
lence has been done to this author by some of his transcribers,
particularly Orosius, by inserting c before xxxii; and when it was
found that this number would apply to neither situation, a farther
gratuitous change of c into l was attempted ; but it cannot be ad-
mitted. It is singular that both Grordon and Horsley, in giving
the sense of the aboye passage, entirely omit the word reeeptas^
which seems to me to proye that the provinces between the En-
glish and Scotch vallum were again included by Severus within the
limits of the 3Eloman empire. It is the more extraordinary that
these writers should haye lent their authority to the common ac-
coont, as Bede, who wrote at the dose of the seventh century, and
was brought up at Hexham, a town near the Boman wall, expressly
declares that Severus did not build a wall, but drew a rampart

144 INSULAE BRITANNICAE.

later, and ignorantly repeated after him by Auielius
Victor, Cassiodorus, Paulus Diaconus, &c. Now,
of these passages, the former barely states the fact,
without a word by which to fix the position ; and
the latter, so far ifrom conntenancing the common
notion, expressly declares, that Sevems carried a
rampart firom sea to sea, thirty'ttoo miles in length ;
which can apply to no part of the island, except the
space between the Forth and Clyde. And this, it
is added, he did, in order that he might give perfect
security to the re-cxmqvLered provinces ; that is, the
country between Hadrian's and Antonine's line,
which his expedition had enabled him once more to
overrun and recover. The silence of history as to
the stone-wall between Newcastle and Carlisle ren-
ders it not improbable that it was constructed at a
later period of the empire, and by several successive
emperors, or perhaps, as Bede says, (Hist. Ecdes.
I. c. 12), by the Britons themselves, when the Eo-
mans were no longer able to defend them.

II. — Roman Boads.

Roman Britain, under the later empire, was
penetrated in all directions by militai^r roads.
London for the south, and York {^baracfwrn) for the
north, were the points to which they all converged.
The most remarkable were, Watlin Street,
which, starting fi*om Butupiaej Richborough in

a£roc» the ifiland. ^ Beceptcm partem infiolae, a caeteiis indomi-
tifl gentibus non muro (at quidam aestimaiit) sed Tallo distiogaen'
dam putavit*^ — Beda, Hist. £ccl. i. c. 5.

INSULAE BRITANNICAE. 145

Kent, ran through Canterbury and, passing by Eo-
chester and London, through St Alban's, Dunstable,
and Wroxeter, to Holyhead. A south-western
branch of Wadin Street, starting from Carriden on
the Firth of Forth, which was the eastern termination
ofAntonine's Wall, passed byEklinMoor,Bambougle
HiU and Cramond^^ {Alaterva). — Thence it has
been traced, by the east slope of Pentland Hill, to
Straiton^ Loanhead^ (names which seem to indicate
their position on the line), crossing the North Esk
above Mavisbank, and the South Esk at Dalhousie
Castle, over Soutra Hill, coming down on Channel-
kirk Camp, and onwards by Lauderdale, Eildon
Hill, and St Boswell's Green to Bonjedward.
Crossing the Jed and Oxnam Waters, it is stilP*
conspicuous for several miles as it passes over the
high ground between Samiston and Pennimoor : and
alongside of it are seen the pits, overgrown with
rushes and spongy soil, from which the materials
were quarried. It passes here also between several
Druidical Circles, formed with fragments of basaltic
columns, which must have been brought from a
considerable distance. ^ At Pennimoor, the Eoad is
flanked by a large Eoman encampment, of which
the rampart and ditch, and th^ traverses at the gates,
are distinctly visible. This camp is under the brow
of Woden Law, on which there are striking remains
of a British place of strength. Entering England

" A branch went thence .to Inyeresk, part of which is thought
to remain in what is called the Fishwives' Causeway, near Porto-
bello, now nearly obliterated by the Railway.

^* Observed in October 1834.

L

146 INS13LAB BRITANNICAE.

at Chew Green, the Street goes by Golden Pots on
Thirlmoor to Biechester {Bremenium)y and Cor-
bridge on the Tyne {Carstcpitum) : Crossing that
river, Its course was by Ebchester {Vindomara),
Lanchester, and Binchester, till it crossed the Tees
by a ford, near Pearce Bridge, and on by Catterick
{Caractontum) and Leeming Lane; near Hali&x,
over a moor where it is still traced, under the name
of the Devil's Causeway, to Manchester {Mancwni-
um) ; crossing the Mersey, to Street; then by North-
wi%h, Chester, Aber, where it fell in with the branch
already described.

Iknield Street ran across the Island from a
point near Great Yarmouth (country of Iceni)^ over
the Thames at Streetly^ and through Exeter to Land's
End.

Etknield Street ran also across in a more
northern line, from near Tynemouth, by Chester-le-
Street to Binchester, where it joined Watlin Street,
and branching off again at Catterick, went by Glou-
cester and Chepstow, probably to St David's.

Ermyn Street, known also in Northumberland
by the name of the DeoiVs Causeway^ came from
the eastern side of Scotland ; and crossing the Tweed
west of Berwick, ran near Wooler, and Brinkbum
on the Coquet, to Corbridge, where it joined the
Watlin Street.

Akem AN Street, and the Salt Ways, from Droit-
wich {Salinae) to the sea coast, are less known.

INSULAE BBITANNICAE. 147

in,— Camps and Stations.

The Encampments, of which slender remains may
still be traced, are numerous. The most striking
are the following : — On Birrenswark HiU [Trimon-
Hum of Ptolemy) near Lockerby in Annandale,
there are stiU distinct remains of two Koman
encampments, probably of Agricola's 6th legion;
and on the Mein, close by Middleby, Blatum Buln
gium of the Itineraries : N. W. 4J miles from Birrens-
wark, a camp on Torwood Moor : at Ardoch (lAn-
dum)j on the Knaig in StrathaUan, very distinct :
near the junction of Lyne and Tweed : Castle
Dykes, 9 miles from Biggar : at Dealgin Eoss, near
Comrie, west extremity of Stratheam : at Strageth
(Hiema)y on the Earn : at Battle Dykes, in Strath-
more : at Fordoun, Angus-shire, two camps : Kae
Dykes, near XJrie HiU, on the Ithan : at the conflu-
ence of Almond and Tay {Orrea) : Norman (per-
haps a corruption of Koman) Dykes, near Aboyne
on the Dee.

We cannot promise the young antiquarian the
gratification of seeing the actual remains in all these
positions ; the very traces of them are daily disap-
pearing under the plough, and by the effects of
modem improvement ; but the altars, miliary stones,
statues, monuments, votive tablets, coins, weapons,
&c., which attest their existence and locality, may
be seen in various collections, public and private, to
which they have been removed.

APPENDIX,

CONTAINING A SELECTION OF PASSAGES FROM THE

LATIN POETS, ILLUSTRATIVE OF ANCIENT

LOCALITIES AND PEOPLES.

APPENDIX.

ANTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPHICA,

LONGIORA QUJEDAM DB SITU ET NATURA. LOCOBUM

POPULOBUMQUE ANTIQUOBUM, EX POETIS

LATINIS DECEBPTA, C0MPLEC5TENS.

fflSPANIA.

Quid dignum memorare tuis, Hispania, terris
Vox humana yalet? Primo levat aequore Solem
India : Tu fessos exacta Ince jugales
Proluis ; inque tuo respirant sidera flnctu.
Diyes equis^ frugum facilis, pretiosa metallis,
Principibus fecnnda piis: Tibi saecula debent
Trajanum : series his fontibus Aelia fluxit :
Hinc senior pater; hinc jayenum diademata fratrum.
Namque aliae gentes, quas foedere Eoma recepit
Ant armis domuit, varios aptantur in usus
Imperii : Phariae segetes et Panica messis
Gastrorom devota cibo : dat Gallia robor
Militis : Illyricis sudant equitatibus alae.
Sola novum Latiis yectigal Iberia rebns
Contulit, Augustos. Fruges, aeraria, miles,

152 ANTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPHICA.

Undiqne conveniunt, totoque ex orbe leguntur :
Haec generat qui cuncta regant, {See p. 4.)

Claudiani Laus Sbbenae, 50.

The following passages are extracted from Silius^s Catalogue of
the Spanish Tribes that furnished quotas of troops to Hannibal,
when he was preparing to invade Italy.

— Totufl adest Vesper, populique reposti :
Canvabeb ante omnes, hiemisque aestiisque famisque
Invictus, palmamque ex omni ferre labore.
Mirus amor populo, eum pigra incanuit aetas,
Imbelles jamdudnm annos praevertere saxo,
Nee yitam sine Marte pati. Quippe omnis in armis
Lucis causa sita, et damnatum yiyere paci.

Yenere et Celtae sociati nomen Ibebis.^
His pugn^ cecidisse decus, corpusque cremari
Tale, nefas. Coelo credunt Superisque referri,
Impaatus carpat si membra jacentia yultur.

Fibrarum et pennae diyinarumque sagacem
Flammarum, misit diyes Callaegia' pubem,
Barbara nunc patriis ululantem carmina Unguis,
Nunc, pedis altemo percussa verbere terra.
Ad numemm resonas gaudentem plaudere caetras.
Haec requies ludusque yiris, ea sacra yoluptas.
Cetera femineus peragit labor : Addere sulco
Semina et impresso tellurem yertere aratro,
Segne yiris. Quidquid duro sine Marte gerendum est,
Callaici conjux obit irrequieta mariti. — Sil. It. IU.325,&c.

^ i. e. Cdtiheri, who dwelt between the Ebro and the Pyrenees.
' The N. W. comer of Spain, corresponding to the modem pro-
Tinee of GallicU.

ANTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPHICA. 153

II.
GALLIA,— RHODANUS,—ALPES.

In Lucan's Catalogue of the Gallic Tribes who foniished quotas
of troops to Caesar's army, speaking of the coast of Graul
washed by the AtUntic, where the Romans first became ac-
quainted with the phenomena of the tides, he calls it

--littus dubium, quod terra fretmnque
Vindicat altemis vicibus, cum fonditur ingens
Oceanns, vel cum refugis se fluctibus aufert.
Ventus ab extreme pelagus sic axe volutet
Destituatque ferens, an sidere mota secundo
Tethyos unda vagae lunaribus aestuet horis,
Flammiger an Titan, ut alentes hauriat undas,
Erigat Oceanum fluctusque ad sidera tollat,
Quaerite, quos agitat mundi labor ; at mihi semper
Tu quaecunque mores tam crebros Causa meatus,
Ut Superi voluere, late I — Luc. I. 410.

And in spite of the obscure allusion in line 5th to Lunar
influences, the cause did lie concealed for 17 centuries
after Lucan, till — ^when

Nature and Nature's law lay hid in night —
God said, * Let Newton be,' and all was light^

Aggeribus caput Alpinis et rupe nivali
Proserit in Celtas, ingentemque extrahit amnem
Spumanti Rhodanus proscindens gurgite campos,
Ac propere in pontum lato ruit incitus alveo.
Auget opes, stanti similis tacitoque liquore
Mixtus, Abab ; quem gurgitibus complexus anhelis

PoPB. — Epitaph on Sir Isaac Newton.

154 ANTHOLOOIA GEOGRAPHICA.

Gimctantein immergit pelago, raptumque per arva
Ferre yetat patrium yiciiia ad littora nomen.

SiL. It. m. 448.

Sed jam praeteritos ultra meminisse labores
Conspectae propins demsere payentibiiB' Alfes.
Cnncta £;elii caii&qne aetemnm grandine tecta
Atqne aeyi gladem cohibent : riget ardna montis
Aetherei iiacies, surgentique obvia Phoebo
Duratas nescit flammis molliie pminas.
Qnantnin Tartareufl regni pallentb hiatus
Ad manes imos atque atrae stagna paludis
A supera tellure patet, tam longa per auras
Erigitur tellns, et coelum intercipit umbr&.
Nullum yer usquam, nullique aestatis honores.
Sola jugis habitat diris, sedesque tuetur
Perpetuas, deformis Hiems : ilia undique nubes
Hue atras agit, et mixtos cum grandine nimbos.
Jam cuncti flatus yentique furentia regna
Alpina posuere domo. Caligat in altis
Obtutus saxis, abeuntque in nubila mantes.
Mixtus Athos Tauro, Rhodopeque adjuncta Mimanti,
Ossaque cum Pelio, cumque Ebiemo cesserit Othrys.

Ib, 477.

m.

rrALIA.

Umbrosis mediam qua collibus Apenninus
Erigit Italiam : non ullo yertice tellus
Altius intumuit, propiusque accessit Oljrmpo.
Mons inter geminas medius se porrigit undas

' Sc. militibus Hannibalis.

ANTHOLOGU GE06BAPHI0A. 155

Memi Snperique maris; coOesqne coeicent,
Hinc Tyrrhena vado frangentes aeqnora Pbae,
Qlinc Dalmaticis obnoxia flnctibus Ancon.
Fontibus hie yastis immensos concipit amnes,
Fluminaque in gemini spargit divortia ponti.
In laevnm ceddere latus yeloxqne Metaurus,
Crnstnmiumque rapax, et junctns Sapis Isanro,
Sennaque, et Hadriacas qui yerberat Aufidus nndas :
Quoqne magis nullum tellus se solyit in amnem,
EuDAKus, firactasque eyolyit in aequora silvas,
Hesperiamque exhaurit aquis. Hunc fabula primum
Populea fluyium ripas umbrisse corona ;
Cumque diem pronnm transyerso limite dneens,
Succendit Pbaethon flagrantibus aethera loris,
Gnrgitibus raptis penitus tellnre pemsti,
Hnne habuisse pares Phoebeis ignibus undas.
Non minor hie Nilo, si non per plana jacentis
Aegypti Libycas Nilns stagnaret arenas :
Non minor Idc Istro, nisi quod, dum permeat orbem
Ister, casuros in quaelibet aeqnora fontes
Accipit, et Scythicas exit non solus in nndas.
Dexteriora petens montis decliyia Thybrim
Unda &cit, Rutubamque cayum ; delabitur inde
Vnltumusque celer, noctumaeque editor aurae
SamuSy et nmbrosae Liris per regna Maricae
Vestmis impulsus aquis, radensque Salemi .
Oulta Siler, nullasque yado qui Macra moratus
Alnos yicinae procurrit in aequora Lunae. — Luc. n. 396.

DEBCBimON OF A yiLLA ON THE JANICULUM.

JuLi jugera pauca Martialis,
Hortis Hesperidum beatiora,

156 ANTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPHICA.

Longo Janiculi jugo recumbunt :

Lati collibus imminent recessus,

Et planus modico tumore yertex

Coelo perfruitur sereniore,

£t, curvas nebula tegente valles,

Solus luce nitet peculiaii :

Puris leniter admoyentur astris

Gelsae culmina delicata yillae.

Hinc septem dominos yidere montes,

Et totam licet aestimare Romam.

Albanos quoque Tusculosque colles,

Et quodcunque jacet sub urbe frigus,

Fidenas veteres, brevesque Rubras,

Et, quod yirgineo craore gaudet,

Annae pomiferum nemus Perennae.

mic Flaminiae Salariaeque

Grestator patet, essedo tacente

Ne^blando rota sit molesta somno ;

Quem nee rumpere nauticum celeusma,

Nee clamor yalet belciariorum,

Cum sit tam prope Milyius, sacrumque

Lapsae per Tiberim yolent carinae.

Hoc rus (seu potius domus yocanda est)

Gommendat dominus ; tuam putabis :

Tam non inyida, tamque liberalis,

Tam comi patet hospitalitate.

Credas Alcinoi pios penates,

Aut facti modo diyitis Molorchi.

Yos nunc omnia parya qui putatis,

Centeno gelidum ligone Tibur

Vel Praeneste domate, pendulamque

Uni dedite Setiam colono,

Dum, me judice, praeferantur istis

Jul! jugera pauca Martialis. — Mabt. Epigr. nr. 64.

ANTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPHICAL 157

DEDICATION OP ONE OP THE POEt's WOBKS TO THE EMPEROR.

Hoc tibi — Palladiae sen collibus uteris Albae,

Oaesab, et hinc Triviam prospicis, inde Thetin,
Sen tua yeridicae discunt responsa sorores,

Plana subnrbani qua cubat nnda freti,
Sen placet Aeneae nutrix, sen filia Soils,

Sive salutiferis candidus Anxur aquis —
Mittimus, rerum felix tutela salusque,

Sospite quo, gratum credimus esse Jovem.
Tu tantum accipias : ego te legisse putabo,

Et tumidns GaM credulitate fruar.— Mart. v. 1.

The following lines are intended as a prophetic allusion
to M. Tullius Cicero : —

At qui Fibreno miscentem flumina Lirim
Sulphureum, tacitisque vadis ad littora lapsum,
Accolit Arpinas, accita pube Venafro
Ac Larinatum dextris, socia hispidus arma
Commovet, atque viris ingens exhaurit Aquinum.
TuLiius aeratas raptabat in agmina turmas,
Regia progenies, et Tullo sanguis ab alto.
Indole, pro I qua a juvenis, quantumque daturus
Ausoniae populis yentura in saecula civem !
nie super Gangem, super exauditus et Indos,
Implebit terras voce, et furialia bella
Fulmine compescet linguae, nee deinde relinquet
Par decus eloquii cuiquam sperare nepotum, &c. &c.
SiLius Italicus, VII. 357.

Virgil's praise op italy.

Sed neque Medorum silvae, ditissima terra,
Nee pulcher Ganges, atque auro turbidus Hermus,
Landibus Itauae certent : non Bactra, neque Indi,
Totaque turiferis Panchaia pinguis arenis.

158 ANTHOLOGIA GEOGBAPHICA.

Haec loca non tauri spirantes naribus i^em
InyertSre, satis immanis dentibus hydri;
Nee galeis densisque yiriim seges homdt hastifl :
Sed grayidae frages et Bacchi Massicus humor
Bnplev^re : tenent oleae armentaque laeta.
Hinc bellator equus campo sese ardnns infert :
Hinc albi, Clitnmne, greges, et maxima tauros
Victima, saepe tuo perfasi flumine sacro,
Bomanos ad templa delhn dox^re triumphos.
Hie Ter assiduum, atqne alienis mensibus aestas :
Bis grayidae pecudes, bis pomis utilis arbor.
At rabidae tigres absunt, et saeya leonum
Semina ; nee miseros falluDt aconita legentes ;
Nee rapit immensos orbes per humum, neque tanto
Squameus in spiram tractu se coliigit anguis.
Adde tot egregias urbes, operumque laborem,
Tot congesta manu praeraptis oppida saxis,
Fluminaque antiqnos subterlabentia muros.
An mare, qnod snpra, memorem, quodque alluit infra?
Anne lacus tantos? te, Lari maxime, teqne,
Fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino?
An memorem portus, Lucrinoque addita claustra,
Atque indignatum magnis stridoribos aequor,
Jnlia quk ponto longe sonat nnda refdso,
Tyrrhenusque fretis immittitur aestus Ayemis ?
Haec eadem argent! riyos, aerisque metalla
Ostendit yenis, atque auro plurima fluxit.
Haec genus acre yiriim, Marsos pubemque Sabellam,
Adsuetumque malo Ligurem Yolscosque yerutos
Extulit : haec Decios, Marios, magnosque Camillos :
Scipiadas duros beilo : et te, maxime Caesar,
Qui nunc, extremis Asiae jam yictor in oris,
Imbellem ayertis Romanis arcibus Indum.
Salye, magna parens frugum, Saturnia tellus !
Magna yirAm ! — ^Vibg. Georg. n. 136.

ANTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPHICA. 159

SICILIA.— AETNA.— SARDINIA.

Haec loca, yi quondam et yastft conmlsa ruin^,
(Tantuin aevi longinqoa valet mutare yetustas)
Dissiluisse ferunt, quum protenus ntraqne tellos
Una foret : venit medio yi pontus, et undis
Hesperium Sicnlo latus abscidit, aryaque et urbes
littore diductas angosto interloit aestn.
Dextrmn Scylla latus, laeyum implacata Charybdis
Obsidet, atque imo barathri ter gurgite vastos
Sorbet in abraptum fluctus, rursuBque sub auras
Erigit altemos, et sidera yerberat und& — Aen. m. 414.

Yasta giganteis injecta est insula membris
Tbinacbis, et magnis subjectum molibus urget
Aetbereas ausum sperare Typboea sedes.
Nititur ille quidem, pugnatque resurgere saepe :
Dextra sed Ausonio manus est subjecta Peloro :
Laeya, Pacbyne, tibi : Lilybceo crura premuntur :
Degrayat Aetna caput : sub qua resupinus arenas
Ejectaty flammamque fero yomit ore T^boeus.

Oy. Met. y. 346.

horrificis juxta tonat Aetna minis :

Interdumque atram prorumpit ad aethera nubem,
Turbine fumantem piceo et candente fayiM,
Attollitque globos flammarum, et sidera lambit ;
Interdum scopulos ayulsaque yiscera montis
Erigit eructans, liquefactaque saxa sub auras
Cum gemitu glomerat, fundoque exaestuat imo.
Fama est, Enceladi semiustum fulmine corpus

160 ANTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPHICA.

Urgueri mole h^, ingentemque insuper Aetnam
Impositam ruptis flammam exspirare caminis ;
Et, fessum qnoties mutat latns, intremere omnem
Munnure Trinacriam, et coelum subtexere fumo.

Aen. m. 571.

Trinaceia quondam

Italiae pars mia fait : sed pontns et aestns
Mutavere sitmn : rupit confinia Nereus
Victor, et abscissos interluit aequore montes ;
Parvaque cognatas prohibent discrimina terras.
Nmic illam, socili raptam tellure, trisnlcam
Opponit natura mari : caput inde Pachyni
Respuit lonias praetentis rupibus iras ;
Hinc latrat Gaetula Thetis, Lilybceaque pulsat
Brachia consurgens ; hinc, dedignata teneri,
Concutit objectum rabies Tyrrhena Pelorum.
In medio scopulis se porrigit Aetna perustis ;
— ^Aetna Giganteos nunquam tacitura triumphos,
Enceladi bustum, qui, saucia terga revinctus,
Spirat inexhaustum flagranti pectore sulphur ;
Et, quoties detrectat onus cervice rebelli
In dextrum laevtunque latus, tunc insula fundo
Vellitur, et dubiae nutant cum moenibus urbes.
Aetnaeos apices solo cognoscere visu,
Non aditu tentare, licet : pars caetera frondet
Arboribus : teritur nuUo cultore cacumen.
Nunc vomit indigenas nimbos, pice^ue gravatum
Foedat nube diem : nunc molibus astra lacessit
Terrificis, damnisque suis incendia nutrit.
Sed, quamvis nimio fervens exuberet aestu,
Scit nivibus servare fidem ; pariterque favillis
Durescit glacies, tanti secura vaporis,
Arcano defensa gelu ; fumoque fideli

ANTHOLOGIA aEOGRAPHICA. 161

Lambit contiguas innoxia flamma proinas.

Qaae scopulos tormenta rotant ? quae tanta cayemafi

Vis glomerat? quo fonte ruit Yulcanius amnis ?

Siye quod objicibus discurrens yentus opertis

Qffenso per saxa furit rimosa meatu,

Dum scrutatur iter, libertatemque reposcens,

Putria multiyagis populatur flatibuB antra ;

Seu mare, sulfurei ductum per yiscera montis,

Oppressis ignesdt aquis, et pondere librat.

Claud. Eapt. Pbos. i. 140.

SARDINIA.

Hnmanae in speciem plantae se magna figorat
Insula : Sardoam yeteres dix^re coloni.
Diyes ager frugum : Poenos Italosye petenti
Opportuna situ. Quae pars yicinior Afris,
Plana solo, ratibus demens ; quae respicit Arcton,
Immitis, scopulosa, procax, subitisque sonora
Fluctibns. Insanos infamat nayita montes.

Claudian, Bel. Gild. 507.

V,
GRAECIA.

Quis satis Thebas fleat?

Ferax Deorum terra, quem dominum tremit ?
E cujus aryis, eque fecundo sinu
Stricto juyentus orta cum ferro stetit ;
Cujusque muros natus Amphion Joye
Stmxit canoro saxa modulatu trahens ;
In cujus urbem non semel Diy5m pater,
Coelo relicto, yenit : haec quae coelites

u

162 THES8ALIA.

Recepit, et quae fecit et (fos sit loqni)
Fortasse faciet, sordido premitor jugo.
Cadmea proles, civis atqne Ophionis,
Qao decidlstis?^ — Senegas Hesc Fur. il 1.

Thessauah, qQH parte diem bramalibus horis
Attollit Titan, rapes Ossaea coercet.
Cum per snmma poll Phoebnm trabit altior aestas,
Felion opponit radiis nascentibus umbras.
At medios ignes coeli, rabidique Leonis
Solstitiale caput, nemorosus submoTCt Otbrys.
Excipit adversos Zepbyros et lapjga Pindus,

^ Thus translated by the late Jolin Brown Patterson, anthor of
the ** Essay on the National Character of the Athenians/* which
gained the Prize of a Hundred Guineas^ proposed by the Royal
Commissioners for visiting the Uniyeisities of Sootland, in 1827.

Thbbes, who shall weep aright for thee.
No more the valiant and the free !
Thou cradle-land of many a god,
Stoop'st thou beneath a tyrant's rod t
She, — from whose fields together rose
The sworded bands of spell-bom foes ;
Whose walls to rear, Amphion*s tones
Led, as in dance, the charmed stones ;
For whom so oft eternal Jove
Hath left his radiant seats above :
To whom in former yeai-s was giv'n.
To shrine her favourites in heav'n ;
Who, haply, gods will yet create^ —
She — ^bowB beneath the cankering weight
Of iron bondage and disgrace.
How are ye fallen, Cadmean race !
Shall a proud outcast vilely spurn
Your freedom's rights, ye dragon-bom I

l^de Willi uis' Views in Gebsci.

THE88ALIA. 163

£t maturato praecidit yespere lacem :
Nee metuens imi Borean habitator Olympi
Lucentem totis ignorat noctibus Arcton.

Hos inter montes, medi& qui yalle premustur
Perpetuis quondam latuere paludibus agri,
Flumina dam ca'tanpi retinent, nee pervia Tempe
Dant adltus pelago, stagnumqne implentibus nndis
Crescere cursus erat Postquam discessit Oljmpo
Herculed gravis Ossa manu, subitaeque ruinam
Sensit aquae Nereus ; melius mansura sub undis
Emathis aequorei regnum Pharsalos Achillis
Emmet

Ergo abrupta palus multos discessit in amnes.
Purus in occasus, parvi sed gurgitis, Aeas
lonio fluit inde mari, nee fortior undis
Labitur avectae pater Isidis : et tuus, Oeneu,
Paene gener crassis oblimat Echinadas undis :
Et Meleagream maculatus sanguine Nessi
Evenos Calydona secat : ferit amne citato
Maliacas Sperchios aquas ; et flumine puro
Irrigat Amphrysos famulantis pascua Phoebi.
Quique nee humentes nebulas, nee rore madentem
Aera, nee tenues yentos suspirat Anauros.
Et quisquis, pelago per se non cognitus, amnis
Peneo donayit aquas : it gurgite rapto
Apidanos ; nunquamque celer, nisi mixtus, Enipeus.
Accipit Asopos cursus, Phoenixque, Melasque.
Solus, in alterius nomen cum yenerit undae,
Defendit Titaresos aquas, lapsusque supeme,
Gurgite Penei pro siccis utitur aryis.
Hunc, fama est, Stjgiis manare paludibus amnem,
Et, capitis memorem, fluyii contagia vilis
Nolle pati, Superiimque sibi seryare timorem.

Luc. yi. 383.

164 ANTHOLOaiA GEOaRAPHICA.

Eit nemuB Haemoniae,praerapta quod nndique claudit
Sflya : yocant Tempe ; per qoae Penens ab imo
EffusuB Pindo spomosis yolyitor ondis,
Dejectnqne grayi tenues agitantia famos
Nnbila condudt, siimmaBqiie aspergine silvas
Impliiit ; et gonitu plus quam yicina fatigat
Haec domos, hae sedes, haec sunt penetralia magni
Amnis ; in hoc residens &cto de cautibus antro,
Undis jnra dabat, Nymphisque colentibus undas.
Conyeninnt iliac popnlaria flomina primnm,
Nescia gratentor consolentume parentem ;
Popnlifer Sphercheos, et irrequietus Enipeus,
Apidannsque senex, lenisque Amphrysos, et Aeas;
Moxque amnes alii, qui, qua tulit impetus illos,
In mare deducunt fessas erroribus undas.

OyiD. Metam. I. 568.

VL
PONTUS EUXmUS— ASIA (Mtnar.)

clauso miscentur flumina Ponto,

Yimque fretum multo perdit ab amne suam.
Hue Lyons, hue Sagaris, Peniuusqe, Hypanisque,
Cratesque

Influit, et crebro vortice tortus Halys :
Partheniusque rapax, et yolvens saxa Cynapes

Labitur, et nuUo tardier amne Tyras :
Et tu femineae, Thermodon, cognite turmae ;

Et quondam Graiis, Phasi, petite yiris:
Cumque Borysthenio liquidissimus amne Dyraspes,

Et tacite peragens lene Melanthus iter :
Quique duas terras, Asiam Cadmique sororem,

ABTTHOLOGIA GBOGRAPHIOA. 165

Separat, et cnrsus inter utramqae iacit :
Innumeriqae alii, quos inter maximns omnes

Cedere Danubios se tibi, Nile, negat
Copia tot laticum quas auget adulterat ondas :

Nee patitor vires aequor habere suas ;
Quin etiam, stagno similis pigcaeque palndi,

Caeruleus vix est, diluitnrque color.
Lmatat unda freto dulcis, leyiorque marinft est,

Quae proprium mixto de sale pondns habet.

Ovid. Ex Ponto,iv. 10. 45.

Pars Phrtgiab Scythicis quaecunqe Trionibos alget
Proxima, Bithynos ; Solem quae condit, lonas ;
Quae levat, attingit Galatas : utrimque propinqui
Finibas obliquls Lydi Pisidaeque feroces
Continuant Australe latus : gens una fuSre
Tot quondam populi, priscum cognomen et unum,
Appellata Phryges. Sed quid non longa valebit
Permntare dies ? dicti post Maeona regem
Maeones : Aegaeos insedit Graecia portus.
Thyni Thraces arant, quae nunc Bithynia fertur.
Nuper ab Oceano Gallorum exercitus ingens
Blis, ante vagus, tandem regionibus haesit;
Gaesaque deposuit, Graio jam mitis amictu.
Pro Rheno poturus Halyn. Dat cuncta vetustas
Principium Phrygibus : nee rex Aegyptius ultra
Restitit, humani postquam puer uberis expers
In Phrygiam primum laxavit murmura vocem.
Hie cecidit Libycis jactata paludibus olim
Tibia, foedatam cum reddidit unda Minervam.
Hie et, Apolline^ victus testudine pastor,
Suspense memores illustrat pelle Celaenas.
Quatuor hinc magnis procedunt fontibus amnes
Auriferi : nee miror aquas radiare metallo.

166 ANTHOLOOIA OEOGBAPHICA.

Quae toties lay^re Midan. Diyersus ad Anstnim
Cursos et Arctonm flnviis mare. Dindyma foDdimt
Sangarium, yitrei puro qui gurgite GalU
Anctus Amazonii defertur ad ostia Ponti.
Icarium pelagus Mycaleaque littora juncti
Marsya Maeanderque petunt : sed Marsja relox,
Dum suns est flexuque carens; jam flumine mixtua
Mollitnr, Maeandre, tuo — contraria passus,
Quam Rhodano stimulatus Arar; — quos inter, apnea
Planities Cererique faret, densisque ligatur
Yitibos, et glaucae fructus attollit olivae.
Dives equis, felix pecori, pretiosaque picto
Marmore, purporeis cedit cui Sjrmiada yenis.

Claud, in Eutb. n. 238.

Caesar, in pursuit of Pompey, crosses the Hellespont, —

Sigeasque petit, famae mirator, arenas,
£t Simoentis aquas et Graio nobile busto
Rhoetion, et multum debentes yatibus umbras.
Circuit exustae nomen memorabile Trojae,
Magnaque Phoebei quaerit yestigia muri.
Jam sylyae steriles et putres robore trunci
Assaraci pressere domos, et templa deorum
Jam lassa radice tenent : ac tota teguntur
Pergama dumetis : etiam periere ruinae I
Aspicit Hesiones scopulos, sylyasque latentes
Anchisae thalamos ; quo judex sederit antro :
Unde puer raptus coelo : quo yertice Nais
Luserit Oenone : nullum est sine nomine saxum.

Inscius in sicco serpentem pulyere riyum
Transierat, qui Xanthus erat : securus in alto
Gramine ponebat gressus : Phryx incola manes
Hectoreos calcare yetat : discussa jacebant
Saxa, nee uUius faciem seryantia sacri.

ANTHOLOGIA OEOGBAPHICA. 167

* HerceaSy' monstrator ait, ' non respicis aras ?'
O sacer, et magnus yatum labor, omnia iato
Eripis, et populis donas mortalibus aevnm.
Inyidia sacrae, Caesar, ne tangere famae :
Nam si quid Latiis fas est promittere Musis,
Quantum Smymaei durabunt yatis honores,
Venturi me, teque legent : Pharsalia nostra
Vivet, et a nullo tenebris damnabitur aeyo.

LucAN. ix. 961.

vn.

AEGTPTUS.

NiLus fonte soluto

Exit, ut Oceanus lunaribus incrementis
Jussus adest ; auctusque suos non ante coarctat
Quam nox aestiyas a sole receperit boras.

Vana fides veterum, Nilo, quo crescat in arva,
Aethiopum prodesse niyes : non Arctos in illis
Montibus, aut Boreas : testis tibi sole perusti
Ipse color populi, calidique yaporibus Austri.
Adde, quod omne caput fluvii, quodcunque soluta
Praecipitat glacies, ingresso yere tumescit
Prim^ tabe niyis : Nilus neque suscitat undas
Ante Canis radios, nee ripis alligat amnem
Ante parem nocti. Libra sub judice, Phoebum.
Inde etiam leges aliarum nescit aquarum :
Nee tumet hybemus, cum longe sole remoto
Officiis cflret unda suis : dare jussus iniquo
Temperiem coelo, mediis aestatibus exit.
Sub torrente plaga ne terras dissipet ignis,
Nilus adest mundo, contraque incensa Leoni

168 AKTHOLOGIA GSOGBAPHICA.

Qra tmnet: Cancroqne 8iiam torrente Syenen,
Imploratas adest ; nee eampos liberat ondiB,
Donee in aatnmnnm declinet Phoebus, et nmbras
Extendat Meroe. Qnis eansas reddere possit ?
Sic jossit Natura parens decorrere NilouL . • .
Quae tibi noscendi Nflom, Konume, cupido est,
Haec Phariis, Persisqne fait, Macetfimque tyrannis ;
NnUaque non aetas yoloit conferre fatniis
Notitiam : sed yincit adhuc natnra latendL

LucAK. X. 215.

Statins iiiTokes Job, the EJggrptiaii goddess, to take his yonng^
friend, Metins Celer, under her protection, and make him aoqnaintr
ed witii all that is cnrions in Egypt : —

Isi, Fhoroneis quondam stabulata sub antris,^
Nunc regina Phari, numenque Orientis anheli,
Excipe multisono puppem Mareotida sistro ;
Ac juvenem egregium, Latins cui ductor Eoa
Signa, Palaestinasque dedit frenare cohortes.
Ipsa manu placid4 per limina festa sacrosque
Due portus, urbesque tuas. Te praeside, noscat
Unde paludosi foecunda licentia Nili :
Cur yada desidant, et ripa coerceat undas
Cecropio stagnata luto : cur invida Memphis,
Gurye Therapnaei lasciyiat era Canopi :
Cur seryet Fharias Lethaeus janitor aras ;
Yilia cur magnos aequent animalia Diyos ;
Quae sibi praestemat yiyax altaria Phoenix :
Quos dignetur agros aut quo se gurgite Nili
Mergat adoratus trepidis pastoribus Apis.

Stat. Silv.ih. 2. 101.

1 lo— bos ex homine est, ex bove facta Dea. — Or. Hbr. xit. 85.

A5TH0L0GIA GEOGRAPHICA. 169

NiLus in aestatem crescit campisqiie redundat,
Unicns in terns, Aegypti totius amnis :
Is rigat Aegyptum medium per saepe calorem ;
Aut, quia sunt aestate Aquilones ostia contra,
Anni tempore eo, quo Etesiae esse feruntur,
Et contra fluvium flantes remorantur, et undas
Cogentes sursus replent, coguntque manere.
Nam, dubio procul, haec adrerso flabra feruntur
Flumine quae gelidis ab stellis axis aguntur.
nie ex aestifera parte yenit amnis ab Austro,
Inter nigra yiriim percocto secla colore,
Exoriens penitus medi4 ab regione diei.

Est quoque uti possit magnus congestus arenae
Fluctibus adversis oppilare ostia contra.
Gam mare permotum yentis ruit intus arenam ;
Quo fit uti pacto liber minus exitus amnis,
Et proclivis item fiat minus impetus undis.

Fit quoque, uti pluviae forsan magis ad caput ejus
Tempore eo fiant, quo Etesia flabra Aquilonum
NubUa conjiciunt in eas tunc omnia partes.
Scilicet ad mediam regionem ejecta diei
Gum conyenerunt, ibi ad altos denique montes
Contrusae nubes coguntur, yique premuntur.
Forsitan Aethiopum penitus de montibus altis
Grescat, ubi in campos albas descendere ningues
Tabificis subigit radiis sol, omnia lustrans.

LucBET. yi. 712.

VIII.
AFRICA SEPTENTRIONALIS— SYRTES.

Sybtes yel, — ^primam mundo Natura figuram
Com daret, in dubio pelagi terraeque reliquit :

170 AMTHOLOGU GEOaBAPHICA.

(Nam neque subsedit penituSi quo stagna profiuidi
Acciperet, nee se defendit ab aequore tellos ;
Ambigui sed lege loci jacet invia sedes,
Aequora fracta vadis, abruptaque terra profundo ;
£t post multa sonant project! littora fluctus :
Sic male deseruit, nnllosqae exegit in usus
Hanc partem Natura sui ;) vel — ^plenior alto
Olim Sjrtis erat pelago, penitnsque natabat :
Sed rapidas Titan ponto sua lumina pascens,
Aequora subdnxit zonae yicina perustae :
£t nunc pontus adhuc Phoebo siccante repugnat.
Mox, ubi damnosum radios admoyerit aevum,
Tellus Syrtis erit : nam jam brevis unda supeme
Innatat, et late periturum deficit aequon

LuGAN. IX. 303.

IX.
MISCELLANEA.

Oyid consideTS his own case, in being banished from Rome to
Tomi on the shore of the Black Sea, as admitting less of cooBola-
tion than that of any other banished man upon record : —

I nunc, et yeterum nobis exempla yirorum,

Qui forti casum mente tulere, refer !
Et graye magnanimi robur mirare Kutili,

Non usi reditiis conditione dati.
Smyrna yirum tenuit, non Pontus et hostica tellus,

Paene minus nuUo Smyrna petenda loco.
Non doluit patria Cynicus procul esse Sinopeus :

Legit enim sedes, Attica terra, tuas.
Arma Neoclides qui Persica contudit armis,

Argolica primam sensit in urbe fdgam.

AXTHOLOaiA OEOGRAPHIOA. 171

Palsus Aristides patri& Lacedaemona fugit :

Inter quas dubium, quae prior esset, erat.
Gaede puer facta Patroclus Opunta reliquit,

Thessaliamque adiit, hospes Achillis, humum.
Exul ab Haemonia Pirenida cessit ad undam,

Quo duce trabs Colchas sacra cucurrit aquas.
Liquit Agenorides Sidonia moenia Cadmus,

Poneret ut muros in meliore loco.
Venit ad Adrastum Tjdeus, Calydone fugatus ;

Et Teucrum Veneri grata recepit humus.
Quid referam veteres Romanae gentis, apud quos

Exulibus tellus ultima Tibur erat ?
Persequar ut cunctos ; nuUi datus omnibus aeyis

Tarn procul a patria est horridiorve locus.

Ovid, ex Pont. i. 3, 61.

Oyid describes the course of the ship that conveyed Cybele, the
Mother of the Grods, from Phrygia to the mouth of the Tiber : —

Protinus innumerae caedunt pineta secures

nia, quibus fugiens Phryx pius usus erat.
Mille manus coeunt : et picta coloribus ustis

Goelestum Matrem concava pnppis habet.
nia sui per aquas fertur tutissima nati ;

Longaque Phrixeae stagna sororis adit :
Rhoeteumque rapax, Sigeaque litora transit ;

Et Tenedum, et yeteres Eetionis opes.
Cyclades excipiunt, Lesbo post terga relicts,

Quaque Carysteis frangitur unda vadis.
Transit et Icarium, lapsas ubi perdidit alas

Icarus, et yastae nomina fecit aquae.
Turn laeva Creten, dextra Pelopeidas undas

Deserity et Veneri sacra Cythera petit.
Hinc mare Trinacrium, candens ubi tinguere ferrum

Brontes, et Steropes, Acmonidesque solent :

172 AHTH0L06IA 6E06BAPHICA.

Aequoraqiie Afira legit, Sardoaque regna cdnistris
Prospidt a remis, AnBoniamqae tenet

Ostia contigerat, qua ae Tiberinus in altnm
Diyidity et campo liberiore natat ;

OmniB Eqnes, mixtaque gravis cum Hebe Seoatos,

^ ObyioB ad Thnsd flominis ora yenit

Ovm. Fast. tv. 273.

(hid describes the Vojage of Aeneas and hisfdloweny in ae«reh
of a resting-place^ after the Sack of Troy : —

Imde recordati Teucros a sanguine Tencri

Dncere principium, Cretan tennere ; lociqne

Ferre diu nequi^re Jovem, centnmque relictis

Urbibns, Ausonios optant contingere portns.

Saeyit hjems, jactatque viros : Strophadnmqne receptos

Portnbns infidis extermit ales Aello.

Et jam Dolichios portns, Ithacamqne, Samenque,

Neritiasque domos, regnmn fallacis Ulyssei,

Praeter erant vecti : certatam lite Deorum

Ambraciam, yersique yident sub imagine saxum

Judicis, Actiaco quae nunc ab Apolline nota est,

Yocalemque su4 terram Dodonida quercu,

Ghaoniosque sinus : ubi nati rege Molosso

Irrita subjectis fug^re incendia peimis.

Proxima Phaeacum felicibus obsita pomis
Rura petunt. Epirus ab his, regnataque yati
Buthrotus Phrygio, simulataque Troja tenentur.

Ovm. Met. xni. 705.

The MuBter-roll of Pompey's army before the Battle of Pharsalia.

Interea totum Magni fortuna per orbem
Secum casuras in proelia moverat urbes. 170

ANTHOLOGIA GEOGEAPHICA. 173

Proxima yicino vires dat Graecia bello.

Phocaicas Amphissa manus, scopulosaque Cirrha,

Pamassusque jago misit desertus utroque.

Boeoti coi'ere duces, quos impiger ambit

Fatidica Cephissus aqua, Cadmeaque Dirce,

Pisaeaeque manus, populisque per aequora mittens

Sicaniis Alpheus aquas. Tunc Maenala liquit

Areas, et Herculeam miles Trachinius Oeten.

Thesproti Dryopesque ruunt, quercusque silentes

Ohaonio yeteres liquerunt vertice Selloe. 180

Exhausit totas quamvis delectus Athenas,

Exiguae Phoebea tenent navalia puppes,

Tresque petunt veram credi Salamina carinae.

Jam dilecta Jovi centenis yenit in anna

Creta yetus populis, Gnossasque agitare pharetras

Docta nee Eois pejor Gortina sagittis.

Tunc qui Dardanium tenet Oricon, et yagus altis

Dispersus sylyis Athamas, et nomine prisco

EncheUae, yersi testantes funera Cadmi ;

Colchis, et Adriacas spumans Absyrtos in undas ; 190

Penei qui rura colunt, quorumque labore

Thessalus -^moniam yomer proscindit lolcon.

Inde lacessitum primo mare, cum rudis Argo

Miscuit ignotas, temerato littore, gentes,

Primaque cum yentis, pelagique furentibus undis

Composuit mortale genus, fatisque per illam

Accessit mors una ratem. Tunc linquitur Haemus

Thracius, et populum Pholoe mentita bifortnem.

Deseritur Strymon tepido committere Nilo

Bistonias consuetus ayes, et barbara Cone : 200

Sarmaticas ubi perdit aquas, sparsamque profondo

Multifidi Peucen unum caput alluit Istri :

Mysiaque, et gelido tellus perfusa Caico

Idalis, et nimium glebis exiUs Arisbe.

Quique colunt Pitanen, et quae tua munera, Pallas,

174 ANTHOLOOIA OEOORAPHICA.

Lngent damnatae Phoebo victore Celaenae :

Qua celer et rectis descendens Marsya ripis

Errantem Maeandron adit, mixtusque refertur;

Passaque ab auriferis tellas exire metallis

Pactolon : qua culta secat non vilior Hennas. 210

niacae quoque signa manus perituraque castra

Ominibus peti^re suis : nee fabula Trojae

Continuity Phrygiique ferens se Caesar luli.

Accedunt Syriae populi, desertus Orontes,

£t felix, sic fama, Ninos ; rentosa Damascos,

Gazaque, et arbusto palmarum dires Idume,

£t Tyros instabilis, pretiosaque murice Sidon.

Has ad bella rates non flexo limite ponti,

Certior baud uUis duxit Cynosura carinis.

Pboeniees primi, famae si creditur, ausi 220

Mansuram rudibus vocem signare figuris.
Nondum flumineas Mempbis contexere biblos
Noverat ; et saxis tantum yolucresque, feraeque,
Sculptaque servabant magicas animalia linguas.

Deseritur Taurique domus, Perseaque Tarsos,
Coryciumque patens exesis rupibus antrum, /
Hallos, et extemae resonant navalibus Aegae.
Itque Cilix justfi, jam non pirata, carinL
Movit et Eoos bellorum fama reeessus,
Qua colitur Ganges, toto qui solus in orbe 230

Ostia nascenti contraria solvere Pboebo
Audet, et adyersum fluctus impellit in Eurum :
Hie ubi Pellaeus post Tethyos aequora ductor
Constitit, et magno vinci se fassus ab orbe est :
Quaque, ferens rapidum diviso gurgite fontem,
Yastis Indus aquis mixtum non sentit Hydaspen ;
Quique bibunt tenera dulees ab anmdine succos,
Et qui tingentes croceo medicamine crinem
Fluxa coloratis astringunt carbasa genunis.
Quique suas stmxere pyras, yiyique calentes 240

ANTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPHIC A. 176

Gonscend^re rogos. Prohl quanta est gloria genti
Injecisse manum fatis, vitaque repletos
Quod superest don&sse deis ! Venere feroces
Cappadoces, dun populus nunc cultor Amani,
Armeniusque tenens volventem saxa Niphatem :
Aethera tangentes sylvas liquere Coastrae.
Ignotum vobis, Arabes, venistis in orbem,
Umbras mirati nemorum non ire sinistras.
Tunc furor extremos movit Romanus Horetas,
Carmanosque duces, quorum, jam flexus in Austrum, 250
Aether non totam mergi tamen aspicit Arcton.
Lucet et exigua velox ibi nocte Bootes.
Aethiopumque solum, quod non premeretur ab ull&
Signiferi regione poli, nisi poplite lapso
Ultima curvati procederet ungula Tauri.
Quaque caput rapido toUit cum Tigride magnus
Euphrates, quos non diversis fontibus edit
Persis, et incertum, tellus si misceat amnes,
Quod potius sit nomen aquis : sed sparsus in agros
Fertilis Euphrates Phariae vice fungitur undae : 260
At Tigrim subito tellus absorbet hiatu,
Occultosque tegit cursus, rursusque renatum
Fonte novo flumen pelagi non abnegat undis.

Inter Caesareas acies dirersaque signa
Pugnaces dubium Parthi tenuere favorem,
Contenti fecisse duos. Tinxere sagittas
Errantes Scythiae populi, quos gurgite Bactros
Includit gelido, vastisque Hyrcania sylvis.

Hinc Lacedaemonii moto gens appera freno
Heniochi, saevisque affinis Sarmata Moschis, 270

Colchorum qua rura secat ditissima Phasis :
Qua Croeso fatalis Halys, qua vertice lapsus
Rhipaeo Tanais diversi nomina mundi
Imposuit ripls, Asiaeque et terminus idem
Eurojj^, mediae dirimens confinia terrae,

176 ANTHOLOOIA GEOGRAPHIC A.

Nanc hunc, nunc ilium, qua flectitur, ampliat orbem.
Quaque, fretum torrens, Moeotidas egerit undas
Pontus, et Herculeis aufertur gloria metis,
Oceanumque negat solas admittere Gades.
Hinc Essedoniae gentes, auroque ligatas 280

SubstringenSy Arimaspue, cofbas : hinc fortis Arius,
Longaque Sannatici solyens jejunia belli
Massagetes quo fugit equo, volucresque Greloni.
Non, cum Memnoniis deducens agmina regnis
Cyrus, et effusis numerate milite telis
Descendit Xerxes, fratemique ultor amoris
Aequora cum tantis percussit classibus, unum
Tot reges habuere ducem, coiere nee unquam
Tarn variae cultu gentes, tarn dissona vulgi
Ora : tot immensae comites missura ruinae 290

Exciyit populos, et dignas funere Magni
Exequias fortuna dedit. Non comiger Ammon
Mittere Marmaricas cessavit in anna catervas :
Quicquid ab occiduis Libyae patet arida Mauris,
Usque Paraetonias Eoa ad littora Syrtes.
Acciperet felix ne non simul omnia Caesar,
Vincendum pariter Pharsalia praestitit orbem.

LucAN. in. 297,

Orid introduces Pythagoras ^ying a description of the physical
changes that are constantly going on, upon the surface of our
globe.1

Nil equidem durare diu sub imagine eadem
Crediderim. Sic ad ferrum yenistis ab auro, 260

Secula : sic toties versa est Fortuna locorum.
Vidi ego, quod fuerat quondam solidissima tellus.

1 Ovid. Metam. xy. 259.

ANTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPHICA. 177

Esse fretum. Vidi factas ex aeqnore terras ;

Et procnl a pelago conchae jacu^re marinae ;

Et vetuB inventa est in montibus ancora summis.

Qaodque fuit campns, vallem decursns aquarum

Fecit : et eluvie mons est deductus in aequor :

Eque paludosli siccis humus aret arenis :

Quaeque sitim tulerant, stagnata paludibus hument.

Hie fontes Natura novos emisit, at illic 270

Clausit: et antiquis concussa tremoribus orbis

Flumina prosiliunt, ant excaecata residunt.

Sic, ubi terreno Lycus est epotus hiatu,

Exsistit prociil hinc, alioque renascitur ore.

Sic modb combibitur, tecto modb gurgite lapsus

Redditur Argolicis ingens Erasinus in arvis.

Et Mysum capitisque sui ripaeque prioris

Poenituisse ferunt, alili nunc ire, Caicum.

Nee non Sicanias volvens Amenanus arenas

Nunc fluit, interdum suppressis fontibus aret. 280

Ante bibebatur, nunc quas contingere nolis

Fundit Anigros aquas : postquam (nisi vatibus oninis

Eripienda fides) illic lav^re bimembres

Vulnera, clavigeri quae fecerat Herculis arcus.

Quid? non et Scythicis Hypanis de montibus ortus,

Qui f uerat dulcis, salibus yitiatur amaris ?

Fluctibus ambitae fuerant Antissa Pharosque,

Et Phoenissa Tyros : quarum nunc insula nulla est.

Leucada continuam veteres habu^re coloni :

Nunc freta circumeunt. Zancle quoque juncta fiiisse 290

Dicitur Italiae, donee confinia pontus

Abstulit, et medi4 tellurem repulit undS.

Si quaeras Helicen et Burin, Achaidas urbes,

Invenies sub aquis ; et adhuc ostendere nautae

Indinata solent cum moenibus oppida mersis.

Est prope Pitth^am tumulus Troezena, sine ullis

Arduus arboribus, quondam planissima campi

N

178 ANTHOLOGIA OEOGBAPHICA.

Area, nnnc tamulns : nam (res horrenda relatal)

Vis fera ventoram, caecis inclusa cavemiSy

Exspirare aliqua cupiens, luctataque frustra 300

Liberiore fmi coelo, cum carcere rima

Nulla foret toto, nee pervia flatibus esset,

£xtentam tumefecit humum : ceu spiritus oris

Tendere vesicam solet, aut derepta bicomi

Terga capro. Tumor ille loco permansit, et alti

GoUis habet speciem, longoque induruit aevo.

Plurima cum subeant, audita aut cognita vobis,
Pauca super referam. Quid? non et lympha figuras
Datque capitque novas ? medio tua, comiger Ammon,
Unda die gelida est, ortuque obituque calescit 310

Admotis Atbamantis aqnis accendere lignum
Narratur, minimos cum Luna recessit in orbes.
Flumen habent Cicones, quod potnm saxea reddit
Viscera, quod tactis inducit marmora rebus.
Crathis, et huic Sybaris nostris conterminus arvis,
Electro similes faciunt auroque capillos.
Quodque magis mirum, sunt qui non corpora tantum
Verum animos etiam valeant mutare, liquores.
Cui non audita est obscoenae Salmacis undae ?
Aethiopesque lacus ? quos si quis faucibus hausit, 320
Aut furit, aut minim patitur gravitate soporenu
Clitorio quicunque sitim de fonte levarit
Vina fugit, gaudetque meris abstemius undis :
Seu yis est in aquS, calido contraria vino,
Sive, quod indigenae memorant, Amithaone natus,
Proetidas attonitas postquam per carmen et hcrbas
Eripuit furiis, purgamina mentis in illas
Misit aquas ; odiumque meri permansit in undis.
Huic fluit effectu dispar Lyncestius amnis,
Quem quicunque parum moderato gutture traxii, 330
Haud aliter titubat, quam si mera yina bibisset.
Est locus Arcadiae (Pheneon diz6re priores)

ANTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPfllCA. 179

Ambiguis snspectus aquis. Quas nocte timeto :
Nocte nocent potae : sine nox& luce bibuntur.
Sic alias aliasque lacas et flumina Tires
Concipiunt. Tempusque fuit, quo navit in undis,
Nunc sedet Ortygie. Timuit concursibus Argo
Undaram sparsas Symplegadas elisarum,
Quae nunc immotae perstant ventisque resistunt
Nee, quae sulfureis ardet fornacibus, Aetne 340

Ignea semper erit: neque enim fuit ignea semper.
Nam sive est animal tellus, et virit, habetque
Spiramenta locis flammam exhalantia multis,
Spirandi mutare vias, quotiesque movetur,
Has finire potest, illas aperire cavernas ;
Sive leves imis venti cobibentur in antris,
Saxaque cum saxis, et habentem semina flammae
Materiem jactant, ea concipit ictibus ignem,
Antra relinquentur sedatis frigida ventis :
Sive bitumineae rapiunt incendia vires, 350

Luteave exiguis arescunt sulfura fumis :
Nempe ubi terra cibos alimentaque pinguia flammae
Non dabit, absumtis per longum viribus aevum,
Naturaeque suum nutrimen deerit edaci,
Non feret ilia famem, desertaque deseret ignes.
Esse viros fama est in Hyperborea Pallene,
Qui soleant levibus velari corpora plumis,
Cum Tritoniacam novies subi^re paludem. 360

Hand equidem credo ; sparsae quoque membra veneno
Exercere artes Scythides memorantur easdem.
Si qua fides rebus tamen est addenda probatis ;
Nonne vides, quaecunqae mora fluidove calore
Corpora tabuerint, in parva animalia verti ?
I quoque, delectos mactatos obrue tauros,
(Cognita res usu) de putri viscere passim
Plorilegae najscuntur apes : quae more parentum
Rura colunt, operique favent, in spemque laborant.

180 AJSTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPHICA.

Prcssus humo bellator cquus crabronis origo est. 370

Concaya littoreo si demas brachia cancro,

Caetera supponas terrae, de parte sepulta

Scorpius exibit, caud4que minabitur unc4.

Qaaeque solent canis frondes intexere fills

Agrestes tineae (res observata colonis),

Ferall mntant cum papilione figuram.

Semina Hmns habet yirldes generantla ranas,

Et generat truncas pedibus : mox apta natando

Crura dat : utque eadem sint longis saltibus apta,

Posterior partes snperat mensura priores. 380

Nee catnlus, partu quern reddidit ursa recenti,

Sed male viva caro est : lambendo mater in artus

Flngit, et in formam, quantam caplt ipsa, reducit.

Nonne vides, quos cera tegit sexangula, foetus

Melliferarum aplum sine membrls corpora nasci,

Et serosque pedes serasque assumere penna's ?

Junonis volucrem, quae caud4 sidera portat,

Armlgerumque Jovis, Cythereiadasque columbas,

Et genus omne avium, mediis e partibus ovi

Nl sciret fieri, fieri quis posse putaret ? 390

Sunt qui, cum clauso putrefacta est spina sepulchro,

Mutari credant humanas angue medullas.

Haec tamen ex aliis ducunt primordia rebus :

Una est, quae reparet, seque ipsa reseminet, ales :

Assjrii Phoenica vocant. Non fruge, neque herbis,

Sed thuris lacrymis, et succo vivit amomi.

Haec ubi quinque suae complevit secula vitae

Ilicis in ramis, tremulaeve cacumine palmae,

Unguibus et pando nidum sibi construit ore.

Quo simul ac casias, et nardi lenis aristas, 400

Quassaque cum fulv^ substravit cinnama. myrrhs,

Se superimponit, finitque in ojdoribus aeyum.

Inde ferunt, totidem qui vivere debeat annos,

Corpore de patrio parvum Phoenica renasci.

1

ANTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPHICA. 181

Sic et coralium, quo primum contigit auras
Tempore durescit : mollis fuit herba sub undis.
Deseret ante dies, et in alto Phoebus anhelos
Aequore tinget equos, quam consequar omnia dictis
In species translata novas. Sic tempore verti
Cemimus, atque illas assumere robora gentes, 410

Concidere has. Sic magna fuit censuque yirisque,
Perque decem potuit tantum dare sanguinis annos,
Nunc humilis veteres tantummode Troja ruinas,
Et pro diyitiis tumulos ostendit avorum.
Clara fuit Sparte ; magnae viguere Mycenae :
Nee non Cecropiae, nee non Amphionis arces.
Vile solum Sparte est : altae cecid^re Mycenae.
Oedipodioniae quid sunt nisi fabula Thebae ?
Quid Pandioniae restant nisi nomen Athenae ?
Nunc quoque Dardaniam fama est consuf gere Romam, 420
Apenninigenae quae proxima Thybridis undis
Mole sub ingenti rerum fundamina ponit.
Haec igitur formam crescendo mntat, et olim
Immensi caput orbis erit.

Ovid. Metamorph. lib. xv. 259, &c.

Propertius tries to induce his friend Tnllus, long a resident at
Cyzictu, to revisit Rome.

Frigida jam multos placuit tibi Cyzicus annos,

Tulle, Propontiaca qua fluit Isthmos aqua,
Dindymus, et sacrae fabricata juvenca Cybebae,

Raptorisque tulit qua via Ditis equos.
Si te forte juvant Helles Athamantidos urbes.

Nee desiderio. Tulle, movere mei :
Tu licet aspicias coelum omne Atlanta gerentem,

Sectaque Persea Phorcidos ora manu,
Oeryonae stabula, et luctantum in pulvere signa

Herculis Antaeique, Hesperidumque chores : 10

182 ANTHOLOGIA OEOGBAPHICA.

Taqae tno Colchon propellas remige Phaaini,

Peliacaeqne trabLs totmn iter ipse legas,
Qua radis Argoa natat inter saxa columba

In faciem prorae pinos adacta novae ;
Si qua Gygaei visenda est ora Caystri,

£t qna septenas temperat unda vias ; —
Omnia Romanae cedent miracnla terrae ;

Natura hie posuit qnicquid ubique fdit.
Armis apta magis tellos quam commoda nozae,

Famam, Roma, tnae non pudet historiae. 20

Nam quantum ferro, tantum pietate potentes

Stamus ; yictrices temperat iUa manus.
Hie Anio Tibume fluis, Clitunmus ab Umbro

Tramite, et aetemum Marcius humor opus.
Haec tibi, Tulle, parens, haec est pulcherrima sedes :

Hie tibi pro digna gente petendus honos.
Hie tibi ad eloquium elves, hie ampla nepotum

Spes, et yenturae conjugis aptus amor.

Pbofertius, m. 22. 1.

What follows is a contmnation of Claudiam's Praisb of Rome, t
few lines of which are quoted at p. 29.

Haec (Roma) obvia fatis, 140

Innumeras uno gereret cum tempore pugnas,
Hispanas caperet, Siculas obsideret urbes,
Et Galium terris prostemeret, aequore Poenum,
Nunquam succubuit damnis ; et territa nullo
Vulnere, post Cannas major Trebiamque fremebat :
Et cum jam premerent flammae, murumque feriret
Hostis, in extremes aciem mittebat Iberos.
Nee stetit Oceano ; remisque ingressa profundum,
Vincendos alio quaesivit in orbe Britannos.
Haec est, in greminm yietos quae sola reeepit, 150

Humanumque genus communi nomine foyit,

ANTHOLOGIA GEOGEAPHICA. 183

Matris, non dominae, ritu, civesque vocavit
Quos domuity nexuque pio longinqua reymxit.
Hujus pacificis debemus moribus omnes,
Quod veluti patriis regionibus ntitur hospes )
Quod sedem mutare licet : quod ceroere Thulen
Lusus, et horrendos quondam penetrare recessus ;
Quod bibimus passim Rhodanum, potamus Oronten;
Quod cuncti gens una sumus. Nee tenninus unquam
Romanae ditionis erit : nam caetera regna 160

Luxuries vitiis, odiisque superbia, yertit.
Sic male sublimes fregit Spartanus Athenas ;
Atque idem Thebis cecidit : sic Medus ademit
Assyrio, Medoque tulit moderamina Perses.
Subjecit Persen Macedo, cessurus et ipse
Romanis. Haec auguriis firmata Sibyllae,
Haec sacris animata Numae : huic fulmina vibrat
Jupiter ; banc tota Tritonia Gorgone velat.
Arcanas buc Vesta faces, buc orgia secum
Transtulit et Pbrygios Genitrix turrita leones. 170

Hue, depulsurus morbos, Epidaurius hospes
Reptavit placido tractu ; vectumque per undas
Insula Paeonium texit Tiberina draconem.

Orid contrasts the wanderings and misfortunes of Ulysses with
his own: —

Pro duce Neritio, docti mala nostra Poetae

Scribite : Neritio nam mala plura tuli.
nie brevi spatio multis erravit in annis

Inter Dulicbias Iliacasque domos :
Nos, freta sideribus notis distantia mensos,

Sors tulit in Geticos Sarmaticosque sinus.
Ule habuit fidamque manum, sociosque fideles :

Me profugum comites deseruere mei.
Ble suam laetus patriam yictorque petebat :

A patria fugio victus et exul ego.

184 AITTHOLOGIA GEOGRAPHICA.

Nec mihi Dulichium domns est, Ithaceve, Sameye,
Poena quibas non est grandis abesse locis ;

Sed quae de septem totum circumspicit orbem
Montibusy imperii Roma Deiimque locus.

Ovnx Trist. I. 4. 57.

ADDENDUM,

At p. 71^ under tiie headi>f Ctcladbs, add the following allusion
to those islands in Virgil's description of the Battle of Actinm ; —
an allusion which prohahly suggested to Milton the comparison
quoted below from the Battle of the Angels.

Alta petnnt : pelago credas innare revolsas
Cycladas, aut montes concurrere montibus altos.
Tant^ mole viri turritis puppibus instant.

Aen. vm. 691.

commotion such as, to set forth

Great things by small, if, nature's concord broke,
Among the constellations war were sprung,
Two planets, rushing from aspect malign
Of fiercest opposition, in mid sky
Should combat, and their jarring spheres confound.

Pak. Lost, vi. 31

INDEX

CLASSICC-aEOGKAPHICAL NAMES.

INDEX

CLASSICO-GEOGRAPmCAL NAMES.

"«* Gontancdoiw used :— /. inrinB—fr. fretnin— «'. insula, iae. Insnlae—
I. lacii»— m. mooB, ma. monieB—pr. promontorinm— «. sinus— v. vel.

AMera, 83.
Abnoba, m. 86.
Abas, m. 102.
Abyla, 129.
Academia, 81.
Acamania, 69, 62.
Aocho, 113.
Achaia, 67.
Achelous, ft. 62, 76.
Acouae, 89.
Acone, t. 90, note.
Aconites, 90, note.
Acragas, 41.
Acritas, pr. 67.
Acroceraunia, 62.
Acrocorinthus, 68.
Acropolis, 81.
Acte, 74.
Actium, 62.
Addua,;2.26.
Adriaticum mare, 28.
Adula, m. 43.
Aedoi, 12, 17.
Aegates, iae. 41.
Aegina, i. 67.
Aegospotami, 79.
Aegyptus, 119.
Aemilia via, 46.
Aeoliae, iae. 40.
Aesica, 141.
Aetlialia, i. 39.
Aetna, m. 41.
Aetolia, 69, 61.
Africa, 127.
Africa Propria, 128.
Africa Septentrionalis,

127.
Agora, 81.

Agrigentnm, 41.
Agylla, 83.
Alaterva, 146.
Albii, WW. 62.
Albion, i. 133.
Albis,/.21.
Alesia, 14.

Alexandri Arae, 106.
Alexandria, 121.
Alexandria Ariana, 106.
AUemanni, 23.
Allobroges, 18.
Allifae, 30.
Alpes, ma. 42.
Alpes Gamicae, ms. 43.
Alpes Gottiae, nu. 43.
Alpes Graiae, ms. 43.
Alpes Juliae, me. 43.
Alpes Maritimae, nu. 32,

42.
Alpes Fenninae v. Sum-

mae, ms. 43.
Alpes Rhaeticae, ma. 43.
Alpheus, fl. 66, 76.
Altis, 66.

Amanicae Pylae, 96.
Amanus, m. 96, 98.
Ambiani, 14.
Ami8ia,j2. 21.
Amitemum, 31.
Amyclae, 33.
Anas, ft. 2. 4.
Anoon v. Ancona, 37.
Ancyra, 97.
Andes, 27.

Andes v. Andegari, 14.
AngU, 22.
Anio,;?.29.

Anthela, 78.
Anticyra, 63.
Antilibanus, m. 106, 11&
Antiocheia, 109.
Antirrhium, pr. 67,
Antitaurus, m. 99.
Antium, 33.
Antona,>2. 137.
Anxnr, 83.
Aonia, 61.
Aomos. 107.
Aous,/. 62.
Apamea, 100.
Apidanus, JL 66,
Apollonia, 86.
Appia via, 44.
Apulia, 31, 82, 87,
Aquileia, 39.
Aquinom, 29.
Aquitani, 17.
Arabia, 117.
Arabia Felix, 117.
Arabia Petraea, 116.
Arabicus, a. 117.
Aracbosia, 106.
Aradus. 1. 110.
Arar,/. 12.
Arausio, 20.
Araxes,/. 102.
Araxus, pr. 67.
Arbela, 103.
Arcadia, 64, 67, 68,
Ardea, 33.
Arelate, 12.
Areopagus. 81.
Arethusa fons, 41,
Argaeus, m. 97.
Aigolicus, t. 67.

188

INDEX.

Argolifl, 57, 66.
Argos V. Argl, 00, 80.

Ar imii^^i|n, 88.
Armenia, 96, 102.
Armenia Minor, 96.
ATnuB,Jl.2S.
Arpinam, 29.
Ar8ia,^.89,62.
Arsinoe, 124.
Artabrum, pr. 8.
Artacoana, 106.
Artaxata, 103.
Arvemi, 10.
Asia, 102.
Asia Minor, 88, 96.
Asphaltites, ;. 110.
Assyria, 102, 103.
Astures, 8.
Asturica Angosta, 8.
Atagis, A 27, note.
Ater, m. 130.
Atemus,A 28,31.
Athenae, 59, 81.
Athesis,A27.
Athos, TO. 74, 77.
Atlas, TO. 127, 129, 130.
Attica, 69.
Aturus, Jt. 18.
Aiifidus,Jf.28,31.
Aufona,>r. 137.
Angela, 130.
Angosta, 138.
Augusta Praetoria, 26.
Augusta Rauracorum, 15.
Augusta Taurinonun, 26.
Augustodunum, 14, 17.
Aulis, 61.
Aurelia via, 44.
Anrelianl, 13, 17.
Ausonia, 24.
Autricum, 17.
Ayenio, 12.
Ayentinus, m. 48.

Babylon, 104.
Babylonia, 102, 103.
Bactra, 106.
Bactriana, 106.
Baetiea, 8.
Baetls, jf . J, 4.
Bagradas, /T. 129.
Baiae, 36.
Baleares, ta«. 8.
Barbarium, pr. 8.
Barcino, 8, 9.
Basilia, 16.
Bastuli Foeni, 8.
Belgae, 17.
Benacus, I. 26, 27.
Beneyentum, 30.
Berenice, 121.
Berenice, 128.
Berytus, 110.

Bibraete, 14, 17.
BUbilis. 6.
Bithynia, 90.
Blatum Bolginm, 147.
Bodotria,/;. 137.
Boebii, nu. 62.
Boeotia, 69, 60.
Bononia, 28.
Borcoricus, 141.
Boresti, 137.
Borysthenes,/?. 87.
Bosporus Cimmerius, 87.
Bosporus Thraoios, 84.
Bremenium, 146.
Brigantes, 137.
Brigantinus, 1. 16.
Britannia, 1. 133.
Bnmdusium, 37.
Bruttii, 32.
Bruttius Ager, 36.
Burdigala, 13.
Byzantium, 84.

Cabillonum, 12.
Caecubus, 34.
Goelius, TO. 48.
Caere, 33.
Caesaraugusta, 6.
Caesarea, 1. 16.
CiUeta, 33.
Calabri, 37.
Calaurea, t. 67.
Caledon, 62.
Caledonia, 137.
Calenus, 34.
Cales, SO.
Callaici, 8.
Calle, 3.
Calor,/Z.30.
Calpe, 7, 129.
Camalodunum, 138.
Cambunii, ms. 64.
Campani, 30.
Campania, 32, 36.
Campus Martins, 49.
Campus Soeleratus, 49.
Campus Spartarius, 6.
Cangi, 137.
Cannae, 31.

Canopicum ostium, 121.
Cantabri, &
Cantabricus, «. 13.
Cantium, 134.
Canusium, 31.
Caphareus, pr. 66, 70.
CapitolinuB, to. 47.
Cappadocia, 97.
Capreae, t. 39.
Capua, 30, 46.
Caractonium, 146.
Carambis, pr. 89.
Caria, 91, 93.
Carmel, m. 114.

Camifly 32, 38.
Camntes, 17.
Carpathos, t. 72.
Carpetani, 8.
Carrhae, 106.
Carthago, 128.
Casilinum, 30.
Casinum, 46.
Casiua, m. 109.
Caspiae Pylae, 106.
Caspium mare, 108.
Cassia via, 45.
Castalius fons, 61.
Castulo, 4.
Catabathmos, 127.
Catine v. Catane, 41.
Catti, 22.
Caystros,y7.92.
Cebenna t;.Gebemm,ot.lO.
Celaenae, 97.
Celtae, 17.
Celtiberi, 8.
Cenchreae, 58.
Ceos, i. 72.
Cephissus major, /I. 61,

75.
Ceramicns, 81.
C^rasus, 89.
Chaeronea, 80.
Chaloedon, 90, noU.
Chalcis, 70.
Chaldaea, 103.
Charybdia, 40.
Chatti, 22.
Chauci, 22.
Chelonites v. -nataa, pr.

67.
Chersonesns Cimbrica,22.
Chersonesus Thracica,84.
Chersonesus Taurica, 87.
Cherusci, 22.
Chios, t. 71.
Chimaera, to. 94.
Choaspes,/Z. 104.
Cilicia, 91, 96.
Cilicia Campestris, 95.
Cilumum, 141.
Cimbri, 22.
Circeii,33.
Circus Agonalis, 60.
Circus Maximus, 60.
Cithaeron, to. 60.
Clani8,/Z.29.
Climax, to. 95, 99.
CUtor, 69.

Clivns Capitolinns, 60.
Clusium, 29.
Cnidos, 93.
Codanus, s. 21.
Coelesyria, 109.
Colchis, 88.
Coliseum, 46.
Colles Euganei, 27.

INDEX.

189

I CoUis Hortnloram, 49.

Golonia Agrippina^ 15.
I Colonia ForojvJiensis, 16.
I Colossae, 97,
I Golamna Trajana, 49.
' Comitiam, 60.

Complutum, 3.

Concani, 8.

Confluentes, 15.

Copals, I. 76.
I Copies, /Z. 107.

Copcyra, i. 68.

Corduba, 4.
I Corfiaium, 31.
I Corinthia, 57.
I Corinthiacus, «. 57, 67.

Corinthus, 57.

Corioli, 33.

Corsica, t. 39.

Gorstopitum, 146.

Cos, i. 93.

Cragus, m. 94.
I Cremona, 26.

Creta, i. 69.
I Creticum mare, 69.

Crinmetopon, pr. 89.
j Croton, 37.
[ Crypta NeapoUtana, 47.

Cumae, 35.

Cunaxa, 104.

Cuneus, 9.

Cyaneae, iae. 85.
! Cycladea, iae. 71, 184.
i Cydnus,/Z. 95.

Cydonia, 69.

Cyllene, m. 55.

Cynosarges, 81.

Cyprus, t. 96.

Cyrene, 128.

Cyrus, /Z. 102.

Cythera, i. 69.
j Cyzicus, t. 84.

Dacia, 87.

Dalmatia, 62.
I Damascus, 112.
I Danubius,/?.86.

Daunla, 32.

DeloB, i. 71, 94.

Dicta, lit. 69.

Digentia,/Z.29.

Dindymus, m. 90, 97, 99.

Dodona, 62.

Dolopes, 66.
' Doris, 59.

Doris, 91.

Drepanum, 41.

Druentia,/Z. 12.

Dubis, fl. 12, 17.

Duria Major,//. 26.

Duria Minor, /f. 26.

Dunns, /1. 23.

Dyrrhachiom, 37.

Eboracum, 144.
Ebusus, i. 8.
Ecbatana, 106.
Elephantine, i. 125.
Elis, 57, 58.
Elysii Campi, 20.
Emerita Augusta, 4.
Emporiae, 9.
Enipeus,/Z. 66.
Ephesus, 92.
Ephyre, 57.
Epirus, 53, 62.
Eporedia, 26.
Eridanus,/;. 25, 26.
Erymanthus, m. 56.
Erythraeum mare, 117.
Eryx, 41.
Esqnilinus, m. 48.
Etruria, 32.
Etruscum mare, 20.
Etymander,/?. 106. .
Euboea, t. 69.
Euphrates,/?. 98, 102.
Euripus, 61, 69.
Eurotas,/?. 57.
Euxinus Pontus, 84.
Evenus, fl. 76.

Falemus Ager, 34.
Fibrenu3,//.30.
Fidenae, 29.
Flaminia via, 44.
Florentia, 28.
Foesulae, 28.
Fons Bandusiae, 31.
Formiani Colles, 34.
Formlanum, 34.
Forum Julii, 16.
Forum Romanum, 60.
Fossa Mariana, 20.
Frentani, 32.
Fretum Herculeum, 6.
Furcae Gaudinae, 30.

Gadir v. Gades, 6, 9.

Galatia, 97.

Galesus, 36.

Gallia Cisalpina, 24, 25,

38.
Gallia Cispad^na, 28, 32.
Gallia Comata, 17.
Gallia Transalpina, 10.
Gallia Transpadana, 26,

32.
Gallograecia, 97.
Garamantes, 130.
Garumna, fl. 13.
Gaugamela, 103.
Gaza, 106, 114.
Gedrosia, 107.
Geloni, 87.
Genabum, 13.
Genua, 82.

Germania, 20.
Germania Inferior^ 15.
Germania Superior, 15.
Getae, 87.
Glota,//. 137.
Gnossus, 69.
Gomphi, 77.
Gordium, 97.
Gortyna, 69.
Graecia, 53,
Graecia Propria, 53, 59,
Grampius, m, 137.
Granicus,/!, 91.
Gyaros v. -ae, u 72.

Hadrla, 28.

Haemus, m. 52, 53, 85, SS*
Halicamassus, 93.
Halys,/«.89,97.
Hebrus, fl. 83.
Hecatompylos, 106.
Helicon, m. 60.
Helisson, fL 56.
Hellas, 53,
Hellespontus, 84.
Helvetii, 10.
Heraclea, 36,
Heraclea Pontica, 89,
Herculaneum, 36, 46.
Hermus,/^. 91.
Hesperia, 24
Hesperides, 128.
Hibemia, i. 133, 138.
Hiema, 147.
Hierosolyma, 106, 110.
Hippocrene fons, 60.
Hispalis, 4.
Hispania, 1.
Hispania Citerior, 8.
Hispania Ulterior, 8.
Horesti, 137.
Hunnum, 141.
Hydrus v. Hydruntam,

37.
Hypanis,/?, 87.
Hyrcanum mare, 103.

Iberia, 1.

Iberus,//. 2, 5.

Icaria, i. 72.

Iceni, 137.

Ichnusa, i, 39.

Iconium, 98. ,

Ida, m. 69.

Ida, m. (Troad) 91, 99.

Idistavisus, 22.

leme, ». 133, 138

Iguvium, 47.

Ilerda, 5,

Ilergetes, 8.

Ilissus,/7. 76.

Ilium, 91.

Illyricum r . lUyris, 52, 86,

190

INDEX.

nya, i. 89.
Inarime, t. 88.
Indus, /t 107.
Inferum mare, 28.
Ionia, 91.
Isara,/^. 18.
Isauria, 91.
Issicus, 8, 96.
Issus, 95.
later, /Z. 86.
Isthmus, 57.
Istrla, 32, 88.
Italia, 24.

ItalU Propria, 26, 28.
Italica, 4.
Ithaca, t. 68.
lihome, 38.

Janicnlum, 49.
Japjgia, 32.
Japygium, pr. 87.
Jaxartes,//. 108.
Jordanes,/Z.106,10e.
Judaea, 108.
Jnliobona, 20.
Junonis, pr, 8.
Jura, m. 10.
Jnyema, i. 133, 188.

Katakecaumene, 99.

Lacedaemon, 57.
Laconia, 57, 68.
Laconicus, s. 67.
Ladon,;?.57.
Laodicea, 97.
Lapurdum, 16.
Larissa, 66.
Larius, I. 26.
Latina via, 45.
Latium, 32, 33.
Laurentnm, 33.
Laureon, 60.
Lavinium, 33.
Lechaeum, 58.
Legio VII gemina, S.
Lemanus, 1. 11.
Lemnos, t. 70.
Leontes,>f.l08,109, 115.
Lema, 69.
Lesbos, t. 71.
Leuctra, 61.
Libanus, m. 106, 116.
Libora, 3.
Libumia, 62.
Liger,;Z.13.
Liguria, 26, 32.
Ligusticus, 8. 32.
Lllyboeum,/r. 40.
Lindum, 147.
Lingones, 14^ 17.
Liris, ft. 28, 29.
Locria,68.

Londiniam, 188.
Lucania, 81, 32, 86.
Lugdunensis, 12.
Lugdunum, 12.
Luguvallum, 140.
Luna, 32.

Lunensis portns, 82.
Lupia,;2.21,22.
Lusitania, 8.
Lutetia Parisiormn, 14.
Lycaeus, m, 56.
Lycaonla, 98.
Lyceum, 81.
Lycia, 91, 94.
Lydia, 91.

Macedonia, 63, 73.
Macra,^. 25,32.
Maeander, v. -dros, /L 92,
Maenalus, m. 65.
Maeonla, 91.
Maeotis palus, 87.
Magaba, m. 99.
Magna Graecia, 2i, 36.
Magnesia, 66.
Magnum, pr. 8.
Malaca, 9.
Malea,i>r.58, 66.
Maliacus, «. 63, 67.
Mancunium, 146.
Mantinea, 57.
Mantua, 3.
Mantua, 26.
Maracanda, 106.
Marathon, 60.
Mariandyni, 89.
Marianus, m. 4.
Marsi, 32.
Marsyas, /. 96.
Massicus, m. 34.
Massilia, 16, 19.
Massilienses, 19.
Matisco, 12.

Matr»na,/. 14.

Maui'etania, 128, 129.

Mazaca, 97.

Media, 102, 104.

Mediolanum, 26.

Medoacus, Jl. 27.

Megalopolis, 56.

Megaris, 59.

Meles,^. 91.

MeUboea, 1. 109.

Memphis, 106, 120.

Mesopotamia, 102, 103.

Messana, 41.

Messapia, 32.

Messene, 68.

Messenia, 67, 68.

MesseniacuB, ». 67.

Metapontnm, 86.

Metaurus,;S.88.

Metellinom, 4.

Miletns, 98.
Milliarinm AiiTeiun, 00.

Mincin8,;2.26.
Minervae, pr. 99.
Minius,^. 2.
Mintumae, 80.
Misenum, 38.
Moenus,>2.21.
Moeris, 1. 124.
Moesia, 86.
Moguntiacum, 15.
Molossis, 62.
Mona, i. 137.
Mons Jovis, 8.
Morini, 19.
Mosa,;?. 16.
Mosae Trajectos, 15.
Mosula V. Mosella, /Z. 16.
Munda, 7.
Munychia, 60.
Mycale, m. 92, 99.
Mycenae, 59, 80.
Myos Uormos, 121.
Myrmidones, 66.
Mysia, 91.

Namnetes, 14, 17.
Narbo Martins, 18.
Narbouensis, 16.
Namia, 47.
Nasos, t. 41.
Nazos, t. 72.
Neapolis, 35.
Nemausus, 19.
Nemea, 59.
Nervii, 18.
Nestus,/?. 74,82.
Nicaea, 16.
Nicer, /7. 21.
Nicopolis, 98.
Nilus,/Z. 118,119, 122.
Ninus, 103.
Niphates, m. 102.
Nisibis, 103.
Nola, 36.

Nomos Arsinoites, 194.
Norba Gaesarea, 3.
Noricum, 86.
Nova Carthago, 7, 9.
Numantia, 3.
Numidia, 129.

Oasis Jovis Ainmonll,197.
Octodurus, 11.
Oenotria, 24.
Oeta, m. 62.
Olgasys, m. 09.
Olisipo, 3.
Olympeion, 81.
Olympia, 66, 78.
0IympuB(Thes8alia) m44
Olympus, m. 90.
Olynthos, 74.

INDEX.

191

OmbI, 121.
Ophiaaa, i. 8.
Orbeliis, to. 76.
Orbelus, m. 86.
Orcades, iae. 187.
Ordovices, 187.
Orontes, Jl. 108, 116.
Orrea, 147.
Ortygia, i. 41.
Ossa, m. 64.
Ostia, 29.
Othrys, m. 68, 64.
Oxm,JI. 106.

Pachynns, pr. 40.
Pactolas, jf. 91.
Padas,A25,28.
Paestum, 86, 47.
Pagasaeus, s. 67.
Palaestina, 108, 114.
Palatlnus, m. 47.
Palladia, 18.
Pallene, 73.
Palmyra, 106, 113.
Faludes Pomptinae, 83.
Famisus,>f. 58.
Famphylia, 91, 94.
Pandroseion, 81.
Pannonia, 86.
Panormns, 42.
Pantheon, 60.
Paphlagonia, 90.
Paraetonium, 106, 127.
Parisii, 17.
Parnassus, m. 61.
Pamon, m. 67.
Paropamisus, 106.
Paros, t. 72.
Parthenon, 81.
Parthenope, 85.
Parthia, 104.
Paryadres, m. 99.
Pasargadae, 107.
Patara, 94.
Patavium, 27.
Pattala, 107.
Pax" Augusta, 4.
Peligni, 81, 82.
Pelion, m. 64.
Pella, 78.

Peloponnesus, 53, 64.
Pelorus, j)r.40.
Pelusiacum Ostium, 121.
Peneu8,/f.63, 64, 76.
Pentelicus, m. 60.
Persepolis, 107.
Persia, 104.
PersicuB, «. 102.
Pemsla, 29.
Petra, 116.
Phalemm, 00.
Pharsalia, 66.
PliMelis^Oi.

Fha8lB,>f. et urbs, 88.
Phazana, 180.
Phlllppl, 74.
Philae, 1. 120, 125.
Phocis, 69, 61.
Phoenicia, 108, 110.
Phrygla Magna, 96.
Phrygla Minor, 91.
Phthiotis, 66.
Picenam, 32, 87.
Pictones, 20.
Pierii, nu. 64.
Pierius, m. 109.
Pindus, m. 68, 64, 74.
Piraeus, 60.
Pisa, 66.
Pisae, 28.
Pisidia, 91.
Pistorla, 28.
Pityusae, ia«. 8.
Placentia, 26.
Plataea, v. <ae, 61.
Pleistus, 61.
Pnyx, 81.
Poeclle, 81.
Pola, 39.
Pompeii, 36, 46.
Pontus, 90.
Pontus Euzinus, 84.
Porata,>f. 87.
Portus Brivates, 16.
Portus Galensis, 8.
Portus Itlus, 16.
Portus Magnus, 6.
Portus Trutulensis
Trucculensls, 138.
Posldonla, 86.
Possinus, 97.
Potidaea, 73.
Prochyta, i. 39.
Proconnesus, i. 84.
Propontis, 84.
Propylaea, 81.
Provincla Bomana, 17.
Prytaneum, 81.
Ptolemais, 113.
Puteoli, 86, 46.
Pydna, 78.
Pylos, 68.
Pyrene fons, 68.
Pyrenaei, ms, 6.

Quirinalis, m. 49.

Ravenna, 88.
Rhaeti, 86.
Rheglum, 86.
Rhenus, >f . 16. '

Rhenu8,>f. (Italia) 28.
Rhlnocolura, 114.
Rhlum, f>r. 67.
Rhoda,9.
BhodaanSiA 11.

Rhodes, i. et urba. 94.
Rlduna, i. 16.
Roma, 29, 47.
Rotomagus, 14.
Rubicon, /Z. 26.
Rudine, 87.
Rutuli, 83.
Rutupiae, 18^ 144.

Sabatu8,/(. 80.
Sabinl, 82.
Sabl8,>7. la
Sabrina,^. 187.
Sacer, m. 29.
Sacra via, 60.
Sacrum, pr. 8.
Sacrum, pr. (Lyela) 94,99.
Sagaris,}?. 90, 97.
Saguntum, 7.
Salamis, i. 67.
Salamis, 96.
Salduba, 6.
Salinae, 146.
Salmantlca, 8.
SalmydesBus, 85.
Salo, /I. 6.
Salona, 62.

Saltus Castnlonensls, 4.
Samachonltis, 1. 109.
Samara,^. 11, 14.
Samarobriva, 14.
Samnium, 80.
Samos, t. 72.
Samosata, 110.
Samothraoe, i. 70.
Sangarlus, //. 90, 97.
Santones, 20.
Sardinia, i. 89.
Sardis, 91.
Sarmata«, 87.
Samia, u 16.
Saronicus, s. 67.
Satumia Tellus, 24.
Sauromatae, 87.
Savus,/;.86.
Saxones, 22.
Scalabis, 3.
Scaldi8,//.ll.
Scamander, /I. 91.
Scardus v. Scodrus, m. 62.
Scherla, i. 68.
Scylla, 40.
Sedum, 11, 17.
Segeste, 41.
Segovia, 3.
Segusio, 26.
Sena Gallica, 87.
Sena Julia, 88.
Septa Julia v. Oyilia, 50.
Sequana, >l. 14.
Sequaui, 10, 17.
Seriphos, i. 72.

Beriphos, %.
8eBdte«»/f.

26.

192

INDEX.

Setlnus, ager, S4.
Sicambri, 22.
Sicania, i. 40.
SicUia, t. 40.
Sicoris, /S. 6.
Slciaain,yr.38,40.
Sicyonia, 67.
Sidon, 106, 111.
SllureB, 137.
Silva Arduenna, 18.
Silva Hercjnia, 22.
Bimaethos, /1. 41.
Simoia,^. 91.
Bingidanum, 86.
Bingiticas, «. 67.
Binope, 89.
Sirenusae, iae. 89.
Binnio, 21.
Slthonta, 74.
Bmyma, 91.
Sogdiana, 106.
Boli, 95.
Bparta, 57.
BpercheoB, v.Sperchios^Z.

63,75..
Bporades, iae. 71.
Btagira, 74.
Btoechades, itie. 16.
Strongyle, i. 40.
StrophadeR, iae. 68.
Btrymon, /f . 67, 74, 75.
Btrymonicas, s. 67.
Stymphalus, I. m. et urba,

66.
Sucro,^. et urba. 2, 5.
Buevi, 22.

Buevlcmn mare, 21.
Bulmo, 31.
Bonium, pr. 60, 66.
Snperum mare, 28.
Snsa, 104.
Busiana, 102, 104.
Bybaris, 36.
Syene. 1^.
Bymplegades, iae. 85.
Bynnada, 96.
Byracusae, 41.
Syria, 108.
SjTi&e Pylae, 96.
Byrtica Regio,. 131.
Byrtis major, 128.
Byrtis minor, 128.

Tader,^. 2, 6.
Taenarus, j»r. 63, 54, 68,
66.

Tagas,^! . 2, 8.
Tamasis v.TameBa, >I.1S4,
Taiiai8,>f. 87.
Tarentinos, s. 36.
Tarentum, 36.
TArraco, 7, 9.
Tarraconensis, 8.
Tartessus, 7.
Tarsus, 95.
Tanris, 87.
Taurus, m. 94, 95, 99.
Taus, /f. 137.
Taygetus, m. 66.
Tegea, 69.
Telo Martius, 16.
Tempe, 65.
Tenedos, i. 70.
Tentyra, 121.
Teos, 92.
Tergeste, 39.
Terinaeus, s. 67.
Terracina, 33.
Teutones, 23.
Thapsacus, 106, 110.
Thaumaci, 66.
Thebae, 61.
Thebae, 120.
Themiscyra, 89.
Thermaicus, s. 67, 73.
Thermodon,^. 89.
Thermopylae, 63.
Thessalia, 63, 63.
Thesaalonica, 73.
Theselon, 81.
Thracla, 63, 82.
Thule, 135.
Tiberias, 1. 109.
Tiberis,^. 28, 29.
Tibiscus,^. 87.
Tibur, 29.
Ticinu8,/7. 26.
Tifemum, 47.
Tigris,^. 102.
Tiryns, 59, 80.
Tmolus, m. 91.
Toletum, 3.
Tolosa, 13.
Tomi, 85.

Torrens Aegypti,^. 114.
Trachea, 95.
Trapezus, ^8.
Trasymenus, I, 29.
Trebla,^ 28.
Treveri v. Treviri, 18.
Tridentimi, 27.
Trileucnm, pr, 8.

Trimontium, m. 147.
Trinacria, t. 40.
Trinobantes, 137.
Trlquetra Tellus, i. 40.
Tritonis, L 128.
Trogilium,fl7r.99.
Troja,91.
Turdetani, a
Turia,^. 2,6.
TymphrestuB, m. 63.
Tyra8,jl;87.
Tyros, 106, 111.

Umbria, 32, 37.
Utica, 129.

Valentia, 6.
Valeria via, 45.
Vandalitia, 4.
Varus,^. 32.
Yaticanus, m. 49,
Velabrum, 61.
Velleia, 47.
Venafirnm* 30.
Venetia, 32, 38.
Venetus, 1. 15.
Yenusia, 31.
Yerbaniis, I, 26.
Yeroellae, 26.
Yerona, 27, 46.
Yerulamium, 138.
Yesontio, 12, 17.
Yesulus, fR. 26, 42.
Yesuvius, to. 36.
Yettones, 9.
Yia Appia, &c, see Ap-

pia, &c
Yiadrus,^. 21.
Yiminalis, to. 48.
Yindelici, 86.
Yindomara, 146.
Vistula,/?. 21.
Visurgis,/?. 21, 22.
Vogesus, TO. 10.
Vulcaniae, iae. 40.
Vultur, TO. 31.
Vultumus,/Z.30.

Xanthus,/?.94.

Zacynthus, t. 68.
ZadrarCarta, 106.
Zama, 129.
Zancle, 40.
Zaraz, m. 67.

H. AN^ J. PlLLAJrS, PBIKTKBS, KDISTBCRSH.

Works by Professor Pillans.

ECLOGAE CURTI AN AE ; being the first Three Books extant
of the Life of Alexander the Great by Quintus Curtiiis, with copious
Extracts from the remaining Five ; to which are prefixed an Eng-
lish Supplement of the lost Books, and a Map of Alexander's Con-
quests ; together with a Preface, and Notes Critical and Explana-
tory. Second Edition, Improved and Enlarged. 18mo. 3s. 6d.

ECLOGAE LIVIANAE ; being the Five latter Books of the
First Decad of Livy — VI. — X., inclusive, chiefly for the use of
Schools and Colleges ; with a Preface and Notes. 18mo, cloth.
3s.

SELECTIONS prom the FASTI and TRISTIA op OVID,
Collated with the best Texts, and Revised for the Press. 18mo,
cloth. Is.

A WORD FOR THE UNIVERSITIES of SCOTLAND; and
a Plea for the Humanity CUsses in the College of Edinburgh ; in
Reply to certain Letters published in the ** Scottish Press*' and
** Scotsman''' Newspapers. Bvo, sewed. Is. 6d.

THE RATIONALE op SCHOOL DISCIPLINE. Bvo. 5s.
Edinburgh : Maclachlan & Stewart.

FIRST STEPS IN THE GEOGRAPHY op the ANCIENT
WORLD ; with a Map executed by A. K. Johnston. 12nio, cloth.
Is. 6d.

PRINCIPLES OP ELEMENTARY TEACHING, in Two
Letters to the Right Hon. T. F. Kennedy.

Edinburgh: A. & C. Black.

EXCERPTA EX TACITI ANNALIBUS; with a Prefatory
Notice. Sewed. 2s. 6d.

London : John W. Parker, West Strand.

M'^